Achilles was the son of Peleus and the Nereïd Thetis. Ligyron was the name given to Achilles at birth.While still an infant, Thetis tried to make her son immortal. One account says that she anointed Achilles in ambrosia before laying him in a fire, burning away the mortal parts of his body, making him invulnerable from ordinary weapons. When Peleus discovered she held their son over a fire, he cried out in alarm, leaving Achilles invulnerable except for his heels. Annoyed with her husband's interferences, Thetis left her husband and son, and returned home to the sea.A different account says that Thetis dipped him in Styx, the river of the Underworld, holding him by his feet. His heels were the only vulnerable parts of his body, which was covered by Thetis' hands. This is obviously where the term - Achilles' heel - originated.Achilles was brought up and trained by his father and the wise Centaur, Cheiron. His name was changed from Ligyron to Achilles. He learned how to hunt and fight. He was so swift, that he could run down any wild animal.
When the Greeks began gathering the leaders, to fight in the war in Troy, Thetis knew from a prophecy that her son has two possible destinies. One was a peaceful and long life, but without the fame and glory. The other was the most glorious - he can become one of the greatest Greek heroes, but only to be fated to die young.Thetis tried to prevent her son from going to Troy, by disguising Achilles as a girl and hiding him in the court of Lycomedes at the island of Scyrus. During his stay in Scyrus, one of the king's daughters, Deïdaemeia (Deidaemeia), fell in love with him, bore him a son, named Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus).The Greeks having been told by the seer that Troy would not fall without the aid of Achilles. One of the Greek captains, Odysseus, penetrated his disguise, by placing spear and shield among the gifts to the king's daughters. When the Greeks blew their trumpets as if the island were been attack, Achilles snatched the weapons, thereby revealing his identity. Once discovered however, Achilles willingly joined the Greeks.
In the Trojan War, Achilles was regarded as the handsomest, the swiftest, the strongest and the bravest of the Greeks who fought in the Trojan War. He led the Myrmidons with fifty ships from Phthia, Alus, Alope, and Trachis. Achilles wore immortal armour belonging to his father, a wedding gift from the gods. He was also armed with a spear made by Cheiron, from a tree in Mount Pelion. Peleus also gave his two immortal horses to his son (Xanthus and Batus.Before arriving in Troy, Achilles was warned by his mother, not to kill Tenes, son of Apollo and king of Tenedos. If he were to kill Tenes, the god would surely avenge his son's deathThe most notable were Cycnus, son of Poseidon in the earlier year of war. In the last year of the war, he killed Hector, the Amazon Penthesileia and the Aethiopian prince Memnon, son of Eos and Tithonus. His pride, however, caused him to lose his beloved companion (and lover?), Patroclus. He returned to combat, avenging his friend by killing the Trojan champion, Hector.
Achilles' own death came very quickly after killing Memnon. As he pursued the retreating Trojans back to the city gate, Paris shot an arrow at Achilles; the god Apollo had guided the arrow to one of his heel. Dying, Achilles managed to kill with his spear one last Trojan. Fierce fighting erupted around his body. His cousin Ajax managed to carry his body away while Odysseus held the Trojans at bay.During the funeral games of Achilles, his armour resulted in bitter dispute between two comrades – Ajax and Odysseus – both heroes claiming to be the bravest warrior next to Achilles. The armour was awarded to Odysseus, resulting in Ajax's death
Tuesday, December 30, 2008
Light On light
Light is remarkable. It is something we take for granted every day, but it's not something we stop and think about very often or even try and define. Let's take a few minutes and try and understand some things about light.Simply stated, light is nature's way of transferring energy through space. We can complicate it by talking about interacting electric and magnetic fields, quantum mechanics, and all of that, but just remember--light is energy.Light travels very rapidly, but it does have a finite velocity. In vacuum, the speed of light is 186,282 miles per second (or nearly 300,000 kilometers per second), which is really humming along! However, when we start talking about the incredible distances in astronomy, the finite nature of light's velocity becomes readily apparent. It takes about two and a half seconds, for instance, for a radio communication travelling at the speed of light to get to the moon and back.
You might find it interesting to remember, the next time you watch a beautiful sunrise or sunset, that it actually occurred eight minutes earlier--it takes that long for the light to reach the Earth! And, of course, every newspaper article you ever read about astronomy will always include the required statement, "A light year is the distance light travels in one year at the speed of 186,282 miles per second, about 6 trillion miles." We should also highlight right up front that light is more generally referred to as electromagnetic radiation. Okay, we used a big word. It had to happen sooner or later. But too often when we say "light" it is mistaken to mean "optical light," which is roughly the radiation visible to our eyes. Visible light is a tiny portion of a huge smorgasboard of light called the electromagnetic spectrum. For our convenience, we break this smorgasboard up into different courses (appetizer, salad, etc.) and refer to them by name, such as gamma-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio. However, it is important to remember that they are all just light. There are no "breaks" and no hard boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum--just a continuous range of energy.
Particles and Waves
Physics experiments over the past hundred years or so have demonstrated that light has a dual nature. In many instances, it is convenient to represent light as a "particle" phenomenon, thinking of light as discrete "packets" of energy that we call photons. Now in this way of thinking, not all photons are created equal, at least in terms of how much energy they contain. Each photon of X-ray light contains a lot of energy in comparison with, say, an optical or radio photon. It is this "energy content per photon" that is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the different ranges of light described above. Even though it is not strictly correct, it is hard not to think of a beam of light as a collection of little "light bullets" all strung together in a row.
The other way of representing light is as a wave phenomenon. This is somewhat more difficult for most people to understand, but perhaps an analogy with sound waves will be useful. When you play a high note and a low note on the piano, they both produce sound, but the main thing that is different between the two notes is the frequency of the vibrating string producing the sound waves--the faster the vibration the higher the pitch of the note. If we now shift our focus to the sound waves themselves instead of the vibrating string, we would find that the higher pitched notes have shorter wavelengths, or distances between each successive wave. Likewise (and restricting ourselves to optical light for the moment), blue light and red light are both just light, but the blue light has a higher frequency of vibration (or a shorter wavelength) than the red light.
You might find it interesting to remember, the next time you watch a beautiful sunrise or sunset, that it actually occurred eight minutes earlier--it takes that long for the light to reach the Earth! And, of course, every newspaper article you ever read about astronomy will always include the required statement, "A light year is the distance light travels in one year at the speed of 186,282 miles per second, about 6 trillion miles." We should also highlight right up front that light is more generally referred to as electromagnetic radiation. Okay, we used a big word. It had to happen sooner or later. But too often when we say "light" it is mistaken to mean "optical light," which is roughly the radiation visible to our eyes. Visible light is a tiny portion of a huge smorgasboard of light called the electromagnetic spectrum. For our convenience, we break this smorgasboard up into different courses (appetizer, salad, etc.) and refer to them by name, such as gamma-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio. However, it is important to remember that they are all just light. There are no "breaks" and no hard boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum--just a continuous range of energy.
Particles and Waves
Physics experiments over the past hundred years or so have demonstrated that light has a dual nature. In many instances, it is convenient to represent light as a "particle" phenomenon, thinking of light as discrete "packets" of energy that we call photons. Now in this way of thinking, not all photons are created equal, at least in terms of how much energy they contain. Each photon of X-ray light contains a lot of energy in comparison with, say, an optical or radio photon. It is this "energy content per photon" that is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the different ranges of light described above. Even though it is not strictly correct, it is hard not to think of a beam of light as a collection of little "light bullets" all strung together in a row.
The other way of representing light is as a wave phenomenon. This is somewhat more difficult for most people to understand, but perhaps an analogy with sound waves will be useful. When you play a high note and a low note on the piano, they both produce sound, but the main thing that is different between the two notes is the frequency of the vibrating string producing the sound waves--the faster the vibration the higher the pitch of the note. If we now shift our focus to the sound waves themselves instead of the vibrating string, we would find that the higher pitched notes have shorter wavelengths, or distances between each successive wave. Likewise (and restricting ourselves to optical light for the moment), blue light and red light are both just light, but the blue light has a higher frequency of vibration (or a shorter wavelength) than the red light.
Making Of the Telephone
Probably no means of communication has revolutionized the daily lives of ordinary people more than the telephone. Simply described, it is a system which converts sound, specifically the human voice, to electrical impulses of various frequencies and then back to a tone that sounds like the original voice. In 1831, Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-1867) proved that vibrations of metal could be converted to electrical impulses. This was the technological basis of the telephone, but no one actually used this system to transmit sound until 1861. In that year, Johann Philip Reis (1834-1874) in Germany is said to have built a simple apparatus that changed sound to electricity and back again to sound. A crude device, it was incapable of transmitting most frequencies, and it was never fully developed.
A practical telephone was actually invented independently by two men working in the United States, Elisha Gray and Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell. Incredibly, both men filed for a patent on their designs at the New York patent office on February 14, 1876, with Bell beating Gray by only two hours! Although Gray had built the first steel diaphragm / electromagnet receiver in 1874, he wasn’t able to master the design of a workable transmitter until after Bell had. Bell had worked tirelessly, experimenting with various types of mechanisms, while Gray had become discouraged.
According to the famous story, the first fully intelligible telephone call occurred on March 6, 1876, when Bell, in one room, called to his assistant in another room. "Come here, Watson, I want you." Watson heard the request through a receiver connected to the transmitter that Bell had designed, and what followed after that is a history of the founding of the Bell Telephone Company (later AT&T), which grew to be the largest telephone company in the world.The first telephone system, known as an exchange, which is a practical means of communicating between many people who have telephones, was installed in Hartford, Connecticut in 1877, and the first exchange linking two major cities was established between New York and Boston in 1883. The first exchange outside the United States was built in London in 1879. The exchange involved a group of operators working at a large switchboard. The operators would answer an incoming telephone call and connect it manually to the party being called. The first automatic telephone exchange was patented by Almon Strowger of Kansas City in 1891 and installed in 1892, but manual switchboards remained in common use until the middle of the twentieth century.
The coin operated pay telephone was patented by William Gray of Hartford in 1889. The first rotary dial telephone was developed in 1923 by Antoine Barnay in France. The mobile telephone was invented by Bell Telephone Company and introduced into New York City police cars in 1924. Although the first commercial mobile telephone service became available in St. Louis, Missouri in 1946, the mobile telephone would not become common for another four decades.The first touch-tone system - which used tones in the voice frequency range rather than pulses generated by rotary dials - was installed in Baltimore, MD, in 1941. Operators in a central switching office pushed the buttons; it was much too expensive for general use. However, the Bell System was intrigued by touch-tone because it increased the speed of dialing.
In 1978, American Telephone and Telegraph’s (AT&T) Bell Laboratories began testing a mobile telephone system based on hexagonal geographical regions called cells. As the caller’s vehicle passed from one cell to another, an automatic switching system would transfer the telephone call to another cell without interruption. The cellular telephone system began nationwide usage in the United States in 1983. The actual history of the telephone is a subject of complex dispute. The controversy began with the success of the invention and continues today. Some of the inventors credited with inventing the telephone include Antonio Meucci, Philip Reis, Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell.
A practical telephone was actually invented independently by two men working in the United States, Elisha Gray and Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell. Incredibly, both men filed for a patent on their designs at the New York patent office on February 14, 1876, with Bell beating Gray by only two hours! Although Gray had built the first steel diaphragm / electromagnet receiver in 1874, he wasn’t able to master the design of a workable transmitter until after Bell had. Bell had worked tirelessly, experimenting with various types of mechanisms, while Gray had become discouraged.
According to the famous story, the first fully intelligible telephone call occurred on March 6, 1876, when Bell, in one room, called to his assistant in another room. "Come here, Watson, I want you." Watson heard the request through a receiver connected to the transmitter that Bell had designed, and what followed after that is a history of the founding of the Bell Telephone Company (later AT&T), which grew to be the largest telephone company in the world.The first telephone system, known as an exchange, which is a practical means of communicating between many people who have telephones, was installed in Hartford, Connecticut in 1877, and the first exchange linking two major cities was established between New York and Boston in 1883. The first exchange outside the United States was built in London in 1879. The exchange involved a group of operators working at a large switchboard. The operators would answer an incoming telephone call and connect it manually to the party being called. The first automatic telephone exchange was patented by Almon Strowger of Kansas City in 1891 and installed in 1892, but manual switchboards remained in common use until the middle of the twentieth century.
The coin operated pay telephone was patented by William Gray of Hartford in 1889. The first rotary dial telephone was developed in 1923 by Antoine Barnay in France. The mobile telephone was invented by Bell Telephone Company and introduced into New York City police cars in 1924. Although the first commercial mobile telephone service became available in St. Louis, Missouri in 1946, the mobile telephone would not become common for another four decades.The first touch-tone system - which used tones in the voice frequency range rather than pulses generated by rotary dials - was installed in Baltimore, MD, in 1941. Operators in a central switching office pushed the buttons; it was much too expensive for general use. However, the Bell System was intrigued by touch-tone because it increased the speed of dialing.
In 1978, American Telephone and Telegraph’s (AT&T) Bell Laboratories began testing a mobile telephone system based on hexagonal geographical regions called cells. As the caller’s vehicle passed from one cell to another, an automatic switching system would transfer the telephone call to another cell without interruption. The cellular telephone system began nationwide usage in the United States in 1983. The actual history of the telephone is a subject of complex dispute. The controversy began with the success of the invention and continues today. Some of the inventors credited with inventing the telephone include Antonio Meucci, Philip Reis, Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell.
History of the Wristwatch
The history of the wristwatch is indeed short. Wristwatches did not begin to see widespread use until the 1920s. Men tended to regard the wristwatch as effeminate. So, the vintage Rolex men's watch pictured here (circa. 1910) is a relatively rare timepiece. Watches adapted to the wrist made sporadic appearances as early as the late 1500s. Queen Elizabeth I is said to have been given one. In the early 1800s the wristwatch made more frequent appearances when jewellery and watchmakers began creating gem encrusted timepieces for royalty.
Impact of War:
Toward the end of the 1800s, women began to embrace the wristwatch as an item of adornment. Despite the feminine association, the concept became accepted as indispensable to military campaigns as mechanization in war grew. The ability to read time with a quick glance rather than having to dig through pockets was critical in battle. Officers in the South African Boer war (1899-1902) used wristwatches. By World War I, military organizations began to demand them. They became especially crucial to ledgling aerial combat operations. As demand for wristwatches in warfare grew, rugged timepieces covered with metal grids were introduced. The first chronograph wristwatches were developed, and luminous hands and markers were developed.
The wristwatch between the Wars:
Following the war, automatic (self winding) wristwatches were created, drawing on technology used in pocket watches .. Initially they were unreliable, but were perfected by the late 1930s and early 1940s. In the 1920s, the wristwatch became the dominant means of timekeeping among both men and women. Then, as now, men seemed to prefer more rugged, sportier models, including chronographs. Rolex created the first water resistant watch which was worn unscathed by a woman channel swimmer in 1927. Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart strapped on wristwatches for their celebrated flights.
During the Great Depression, demand for wristwatches withered and many top watch making companies went out of business. Despite reversals, many design innovations were introduced.
With the advent of World War II, watches in most countries were an unattainable luxury and production ceased for all but military needs. Neutral Switzerland continued making wristwatches to fulfil military orders. Watches were developed for fighter pilots and for underwater specialties requiring far greater water resistance. Following World War II, civilian production resumed and many innovations were seen, leading to the 1957 introduction of the first electric battery powered wristwatch made by Hamilton Watch Company in America.
Impact of War:
Toward the end of the 1800s, women began to embrace the wristwatch as an item of adornment. Despite the feminine association, the concept became accepted as indispensable to military campaigns as mechanization in war grew. The ability to read time with a quick glance rather than having to dig through pockets was critical in battle. Officers in the South African Boer war (1899-1902) used wristwatches. By World War I, military organizations began to demand them. They became especially crucial to ledgling aerial combat operations. As demand for wristwatches in warfare grew, rugged timepieces covered with metal grids were introduced. The first chronograph wristwatches were developed, and luminous hands and markers were developed.
The wristwatch between the Wars:
Following the war, automatic (self winding) wristwatches were created, drawing on technology used in pocket watches .. Initially they were unreliable, but were perfected by the late 1930s and early 1940s. In the 1920s, the wristwatch became the dominant means of timekeeping among both men and women. Then, as now, men seemed to prefer more rugged, sportier models, including chronographs. Rolex created the first water resistant watch which was worn unscathed by a woman channel swimmer in 1927. Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart strapped on wristwatches for their celebrated flights.
During the Great Depression, demand for wristwatches withered and many top watch making companies went out of business. Despite reversals, many design innovations were introduced.
With the advent of World War II, watches in most countries were an unattainable luxury and production ceased for all but military needs. Neutral Switzerland continued making wristwatches to fulfil military orders. Watches were developed for fighter pilots and for underwater specialties requiring far greater water resistance. Following World War II, civilian production resumed and many innovations were seen, leading to the 1957 introduction of the first electric battery powered wristwatch made by Hamilton Watch Company in America.
Facts about Fast-Foods
Fast food is any food that is quick, convenient, and usually inexpensive. You can buy fast food just about anywhere that sells food and snacks. Vending machines and drive-thru restaurants are probably the most common places to find fast food. It's so popular because for under $5.00 you can usually get a meal that's satisfying. But fast food is inexpensive because it is usually made with cheaper ingredients such as high fat meat and foods that contain lots of unhealthy fats (saturated and trans fats) and cholesterol, instead of nutritious foods such as lean meats, fresh fruits, and vegetables. There is no such thing as a "bad" food. All foods can fit into a healthy meal plan! It's true that fast food is usually high in fat, calories, cholesterol, and sodium, but eating fast food every once in a while is not going to cause you problems. If you eat too much fast food over a long period of time, though, it can lead to health problems like high blood pressure, heart disease, and obesity.
If you are having fast food more than once a week, try to make healthier choices. Here are some tips:
Choose foods that are broiled over fried such as a grilled chicken sandwich instead of fried chicken or chicken nuggets. Choose soups that are not cream based. Have low-fat salad dressings instead of the full-fat kind. Have a salad or soup instead of fries. Use mustard or ketchup instead of mayonnaise. Order smaller entrée portions in general. For example: instead of a large sub, try a small sub with a side salad or piece of fruit. Order smalls instead of "super-sizing." A large fry has 540 calories and 26 grams of fat, but a small fry has about 60% less fat and calories (210 calories and 10 grams of fat). When ordering a sub or sandwich, select leaner meats like turkey or grilled chicken instead of fried items, like a burgers or steak and cheese sandwiches. Choose water, low-fat milk, or diet sodas instead of regular sodas, fruit drinks, and milkshakes. When ordering pizza, add veggies instead of meat.
If fruit and veggies are available, try to add them into your meal. For example, have lettuce and tomato on sandwiches or burgers. You can check out your favorite fast food place or restaurant on the internet. You can find the company web site by doing a google search. Once you have found the web site, look for the "nutrition section". There is usually a link on the home page to the nutrition section where you will find nutrition facts, including fat, cholesterol, sodium, protein, calories, and more. Most companies have a web site which includes useful nutrition information. This will help you make good choices when eating out!
Remember, There are many healthy food choices that are easily available, tasty, and don't cost very much that can be eaten on the go. Try to balance fast food with other nutritious foods throughout the day and make healthier choices whenever possible. Many fast food restaurants have their nutrition information available on-site or on the internet; take a look at it to help you choose healthier options.
If you are having fast food more than once a week, try to make healthier choices. Here are some tips:
Choose foods that are broiled over fried such as a grilled chicken sandwich instead of fried chicken or chicken nuggets. Choose soups that are not cream based. Have low-fat salad dressings instead of the full-fat kind. Have a salad or soup instead of fries. Use mustard or ketchup instead of mayonnaise. Order smaller entrée portions in general. For example: instead of a large sub, try a small sub with a side salad or piece of fruit. Order smalls instead of "super-sizing." A large fry has 540 calories and 26 grams of fat, but a small fry has about 60% less fat and calories (210 calories and 10 grams of fat). When ordering a sub or sandwich, select leaner meats like turkey or grilled chicken instead of fried items, like a burgers or steak and cheese sandwiches. Choose water, low-fat milk, or diet sodas instead of regular sodas, fruit drinks, and milkshakes. When ordering pizza, add veggies instead of meat.
If fruit and veggies are available, try to add them into your meal. For example, have lettuce and tomato on sandwiches or burgers. You can check out your favorite fast food place or restaurant on the internet. You can find the company web site by doing a google search. Once you have found the web site, look for the "nutrition section". There is usually a link on the home page to the nutrition section where you will find nutrition facts, including fat, cholesterol, sodium, protein, calories, and more. Most companies have a web site which includes useful nutrition information. This will help you make good choices when eating out!
Remember, There are many healthy food choices that are easily available, tasty, and don't cost very much that can be eaten on the go. Try to balance fast food with other nutritious foods throughout the day and make healthier choices whenever possible. Many fast food restaurants have their nutrition information available on-site or on the internet; take a look at it to help you choose healthier options.
Lose weight with eggs
There are many different foods that have had diets centred around them - cabbage, for example, or lemonade even - but there is one food that seems to keep coming up time and time again, not in its own diet plan, but as a part of other diets. And that is eggs - and there is good reason for this - to lose weight with eggs as a part of your diet can be much easier!Every successful diet has the same basis - take in fewer calories than you burn each day and your body will burn fat to make up the difference, so you lose weight. Nice and simple! But, of course, there are many ways to enhance the weight loss and adding extra protein to your diet is one of the best. This is because your body uses that protein to replace the fat in your muscles - and lean muscle mass will always burn more calories than fat, so your weight loss accelerates the longer you pursue this plan. So how does that tie in to lose weight with eggs? - Simple - eggs are a GREAT natural source of protein!
Not only that, but eggs, especially if you only use the whites, are a very healthy source of protein. If you have cardio-vascular problems, you may well be recommended a diet including egg whites - because of that low risk way of getting protein into your diet. Much healthier than a steak!! So you can lose weight with eggs and strengthen your heart at the same time.Protein is also a great way to keep your hunger under control. Your body takes a lot longer to break down protein than carbohydrates, so a high protein meal will always satisfy your hunger for longer than one without protein. And if you get caught wanting a snack between meals - high protein, low calorie is the answer. When you lose weight with eggs, you have a naturally packaged, easily carried and stored source of protein right there! I did not personally have much success with the Atkins diet, but one of the things that I did gain was to learn the use of eggs as snacks and quick meals. Amazing how you can lose weight with eggs when you just grab a boiled egg instead of a cookie for a snack - AND it helps your hunger for longer!
Having said all that - I heard on the radio this morning a discussion of how eating nine eggs a day would absolutely cause you to lose weight with eggs. Now - I am sure that is true - but there is a downside to all this protein. First off - your body is not actually all that good at absorbing protein, especially if you are not used to a high protein diet. And the results can be a little “gassy”! If you are going to lose weight with eggs or any other high protein method, make sure you supplement your diet with enzymes to help you absorb that protein safely.Secondly, as with all targeted diets, there is another side to the story! Your body does not only need protein! It ALSO needs calories, carbs, vitamins, etc - the danger of an “egg only” diet is that it can totally bias your diet in one direction, which is not a healthy way of losing weight, and as soon as you get off the plan, you may find weight gain incredibly fast.
So - do I think you can lose weight with eggs? Absolutely! But be aware of the balance in your diet, and, if you want the healthiest option, make sure you incorporate some physical activity too! The absolute best way is to get on a program that lays out exactly what you need to do to achieve balanced, long term weight loss - the best around that I have found is Strip That Fat - which absolutely lays out what you need to do to achieve success, so all you have to do is follow the plan. But whatever you do - stay healthy and you will find your weight stays off much better!
Not only that, but eggs, especially if you only use the whites, are a very healthy source of protein. If you have cardio-vascular problems, you may well be recommended a diet including egg whites - because of that low risk way of getting protein into your diet. Much healthier than a steak!! So you can lose weight with eggs and strengthen your heart at the same time.Protein is also a great way to keep your hunger under control. Your body takes a lot longer to break down protein than carbohydrates, so a high protein meal will always satisfy your hunger for longer than one without protein. And if you get caught wanting a snack between meals - high protein, low calorie is the answer. When you lose weight with eggs, you have a naturally packaged, easily carried and stored source of protein right there! I did not personally have much success with the Atkins diet, but one of the things that I did gain was to learn the use of eggs as snacks and quick meals. Amazing how you can lose weight with eggs when you just grab a boiled egg instead of a cookie for a snack - AND it helps your hunger for longer!
Having said all that - I heard on the radio this morning a discussion of how eating nine eggs a day would absolutely cause you to lose weight with eggs. Now - I am sure that is true - but there is a downside to all this protein. First off - your body is not actually all that good at absorbing protein, especially if you are not used to a high protein diet. And the results can be a little “gassy”! If you are going to lose weight with eggs or any other high protein method, make sure you supplement your diet with enzymes to help you absorb that protein safely.Secondly, as with all targeted diets, there is another side to the story! Your body does not only need protein! It ALSO needs calories, carbs, vitamins, etc - the danger of an “egg only” diet is that it can totally bias your diet in one direction, which is not a healthy way of losing weight, and as soon as you get off the plan, you may find weight gain incredibly fast.
So - do I think you can lose weight with eggs? Absolutely! But be aware of the balance in your diet, and, if you want the healthiest option, make sure you incorporate some physical activity too! The absolute best way is to get on a program that lays out exactly what you need to do to achieve balanced, long term weight loss - the best around that I have found is Strip That Fat - which absolutely lays out what you need to do to achieve success, so all you have to do is follow the plan. But whatever you do - stay healthy and you will find your weight stays off much better!
Switzerland - Play Grounds Of the Earth
Switzerland is rather small, but pretty famous country. It is widely known for its picturesque mountains, financial institutions, cheese and chocolate, perfect watches and excellent public traffic.Switzerland is a country that covers a total territory of 41 293 square kilometers. It is 220 kilometers long (from north to south) and 348 kilometers wide (from east to west). The length of the borderline is 1 881 kilometers. Switzerland is bounded by France to the west, Germany to the north, Austria and the principality of Liechtenstein to the east and Italy to the south.The landscape is mostly mountainous, including the Swiss Alps, the hilly Swiss Mittelland and the Swiss Jura – also a line of rugged mountains. The highest peaks in Switzerland are all located in Valais – Dufourspitze (4 634 meters), Dom (4 545 meters), Weisshorn (4 506 meters) and Matterhorn (4 478 meters).Except mountains, there are also glaciers (140 in total) in Switzerland and many gorgeous lakes (1 484).
The largest glacier when it comes to territory is Aletsch in Valais, which covers a territory of 117 sq kilometers and is 24 kilometers long. The list of the largest lakes includes Lake Geneva (582 sq km), Lake Constance (539 sq km), Lake Neuchâtel (218 sq km), Lake Maggiore (212 sq km), Lake Lucerne (114 sq km) and Lake Zurich (88 sq km).The settlement in Switzerland which is located at the highest elevation is Juf in Graubunden – 2 126 meters above sea level. And respectively the lowest one is located at 196 meters elevation – Ascona in Ticino. The capital of Switzerland is Berne and the total population in the country is 7,4 million people with average density of 172 people per square kilometer. The most populated cities in the country are Zurich (336 800 people), Geneva (173 500), Basel (168 700), Berne (122 700) and Lucerne (57 000). Switzerland is a democratic Parliamentary Federal State since 1848. It is divided into 20 full and 6 half cantons – Argovia, Appenzell Outer-Rhodes, Appenzell Inner-Rhodes, Basle-Country, Basle-Town, Berne, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Grisons, Jura, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, St.Gall, Thurgovia, Ticino, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug and Zurich.
The spoken languages are German (spoken by 64% of the people; in North, Central and Eastern Switzerland), French (19% of the people; in Western Switzerland), Italian (8% of the people; in Southern Switzerland) and Romansch – a derivative from Latin (1% of the people; South-Eastern Switzerland). English is also a widely used language.
As far as religion is concerned, around 48% of the people are Catholic and the Protestants are almost as much – 44%. The rest of the people profess other different religions.There are also some non-official regions in Switzerland. The Zurich Region is famous for its diversity of lakes, rivers, hills and woods, all just next to the Alps. The Basel Region is rather different and known for the excellent displays of modern art and architecture. In the Valais Region you will find many ponds, forests and vineyards and in Lake Geneva Region you can admire the perfect Alpine views. If you want gorgeous lush plains, farms and canyons, you should visit the Jura Region, but if you are more of a culture type – the Geneva Region with its cosmopolitan city is the place for you. In Eastern Switzerland and the Graubünden Region you will also find marvelous Alpine slopes and plains. Also famous are Central Switzerland and the Schweizer Mittelland, with its calm rivers and farmhouses. In the Bernese Oberland you can find a diversity of waterfalls, cliffs, glaciers and canyons. And if you want a sense of Italy, the Mediterranean Ticino Region is a perfect place.
Climate
The climate in Switzerland is moderate without extreme heat, cold or humidity. Between July and August the daytime temperature ranges between 18 and 28 °C and between January and February it ranges from -2 to 7 °C. Throughout spring and autumn, the daytime temperature is usually between 8 and 15 °C. But of course with the altitude the temperatures change, so it is advisable to bring a sweater, light coat and sunglasses.
The largest glacier when it comes to territory is Aletsch in Valais, which covers a territory of 117 sq kilometers and is 24 kilometers long. The list of the largest lakes includes Lake Geneva (582 sq km), Lake Constance (539 sq km), Lake Neuchâtel (218 sq km), Lake Maggiore (212 sq km), Lake Lucerne (114 sq km) and Lake Zurich (88 sq km).The settlement in Switzerland which is located at the highest elevation is Juf in Graubunden – 2 126 meters above sea level. And respectively the lowest one is located at 196 meters elevation – Ascona in Ticino. The capital of Switzerland is Berne and the total population in the country is 7,4 million people with average density of 172 people per square kilometer. The most populated cities in the country are Zurich (336 800 people), Geneva (173 500), Basel (168 700), Berne (122 700) and Lucerne (57 000). Switzerland is a democratic Parliamentary Federal State since 1848. It is divided into 20 full and 6 half cantons – Argovia, Appenzell Outer-Rhodes, Appenzell Inner-Rhodes, Basle-Country, Basle-Town, Berne, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Grisons, Jura, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, St.Gall, Thurgovia, Ticino, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug and Zurich.
The spoken languages are German (spoken by 64% of the people; in North, Central and Eastern Switzerland), French (19% of the people; in Western Switzerland), Italian (8% of the people; in Southern Switzerland) and Romansch – a derivative from Latin (1% of the people; South-Eastern Switzerland). English is also a widely used language.
As far as religion is concerned, around 48% of the people are Catholic and the Protestants are almost as much – 44%. The rest of the people profess other different religions.There are also some non-official regions in Switzerland. The Zurich Region is famous for its diversity of lakes, rivers, hills and woods, all just next to the Alps. The Basel Region is rather different and known for the excellent displays of modern art and architecture. In the Valais Region you will find many ponds, forests and vineyards and in Lake Geneva Region you can admire the perfect Alpine views. If you want gorgeous lush plains, farms and canyons, you should visit the Jura Region, but if you are more of a culture type – the Geneva Region with its cosmopolitan city is the place for you. In Eastern Switzerland and the Graubünden Region you will also find marvelous Alpine slopes and plains. Also famous are Central Switzerland and the Schweizer Mittelland, with its calm rivers and farmhouses. In the Bernese Oberland you can find a diversity of waterfalls, cliffs, glaciers and canyons. And if you want a sense of Italy, the Mediterranean Ticino Region is a perfect place.
Climate
The climate in Switzerland is moderate without extreme heat, cold or humidity. Between July and August the daytime temperature ranges between 18 and 28 °C and between January and February it ranges from -2 to 7 °C. Throughout spring and autumn, the daytime temperature is usually between 8 and 15 °C. But of course with the altitude the temperatures change, so it is advisable to bring a sweater, light coat and sunglasses.
THE MOVIE INDUSTRY
The Movie Industry is one of most exciting and informative businesses in the world, a business where the revenue of a single feature film (such as Titanic), can approach or exceed $1 billion. In 2001, worldwide gross revenues generated by motion pictures in all territories and media (including music and ancillaries) amounted to over $40 billion. Over 70% of the population rents or goes to movies regularly, thus accounting for over 1.5 billion movie attendances each year in the U.S. Prior to 1985, feature motion pictures had one major source of revenue in the United States and abroad: the movie theater. Today much of the world is undergoing a mass communications revolution; hence, new movie markets (such as home video, cable and pay-per-view) have been growing so rapidly that they are no longer just ancillary markets to the basic theatrical market but have become basic markets in themselves.
Industry statistics reveal that the past ten years have marked an overall increase of at least 30% in many "ancilliary markets" and, over 200%, as in the case of home video. The ability to exploit a movie in many markets diminishes investment risk and increases earning potential. In many instances, low budget movies have lost money theatrically and still earned profits overall from ancillary sales.
With the advent of the new computer-based technologies, "cable" markets and direct digital-delivery of motion pictures via satellite and the Internet are expected to increase dramatically over the next five years, creating an accelerated demand for original and re-run motion pictures. The worldwide market for the sale and exploitation of feature motion pictures is divided into "territories" and "media." The territories are divided into two major regions known as "foreign territories" and "domestic territories." The broad foreign territories are Europe, "AustralAsia," Latin America, Eastern Europe and Others (that include Israel, the Middle East, South Africa and Turkey). The United States and Canada are usually grouped together and referred to as the "domestic territory," from the point of view of the United States.
The current "media" by which feature motion pictures are delivered to the territories includes movie theaters, home video cassettes, cable TV (monthly subscription and pay-per-view), direct broadcast satellite TV, free broadcast TV (Network and Syndication), and ancillaries (such as airlines and libraries). According to a study conducted by Monitor Co., the movie and television industries contributed over $16 billion to the State of California's economy, directly employing 164,000 and indirectly employing another 184,000. The study also found that the vast majority of feature films and television programs are produced by independent producers. Independent production is becomming more prevalent in other areas of the United States, especially Nevada, North Carolina and the Tri-State Area (of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania).
Industry statistics reveal that the past ten years have marked an overall increase of at least 30% in many "ancilliary markets" and, over 200%, as in the case of home video. The ability to exploit a movie in many markets diminishes investment risk and increases earning potential. In many instances, low budget movies have lost money theatrically and still earned profits overall from ancillary sales.
With the advent of the new computer-based technologies, "cable" markets and direct digital-delivery of motion pictures via satellite and the Internet are expected to increase dramatically over the next five years, creating an accelerated demand for original and re-run motion pictures. The worldwide market for the sale and exploitation of feature motion pictures is divided into "territories" and "media." The territories are divided into two major regions known as "foreign territories" and "domestic territories." The broad foreign territories are Europe, "AustralAsia," Latin America, Eastern Europe and Others (that include Israel, the Middle East, South Africa and Turkey). The United States and Canada are usually grouped together and referred to as the "domestic territory," from the point of view of the United States.
The current "media" by which feature motion pictures are delivered to the territories includes movie theaters, home video cassettes, cable TV (monthly subscription and pay-per-view), direct broadcast satellite TV, free broadcast TV (Network and Syndication), and ancillaries (such as airlines and libraries). According to a study conducted by Monitor Co., the movie and television industries contributed over $16 billion to the State of California's economy, directly employing 164,000 and indirectly employing another 184,000. The study also found that the vast majority of feature films and television programs are produced by independent producers. Independent production is becomming more prevalent in other areas of the United States, especially Nevada, North Carolina and the Tri-State Area (of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania).
Man On the Moon
Orbiters, landers and rovers….In 1966, the Moon became the first Solar System body beyond Earth to be orbited by an artificial satellite ( Luna 10), followed by Mars in 1971 ( Mariner 9), Venus in 1975 ( Venera 9), Jupiter in 1995 ( Galileo), the asteroid 433 Eros in 2000 ( NEAR Shoemaker), and Saturn in 2004 (Cassini–Huygens). The MESSENGER probe is currently en route to commence the first orbit of Mercury in 2011, while the Dawn spacecraft is currently set to orbit the asteroid Vesta in 2011 and the dwarf planet Ceres in 2015.
The first probe to land on another Solar System body was the Soviet Luna 2 probe, which impacted the Moon in 1959. Since then, increasingly distant planets have been reached, with probes landing on or impacting the surfaces of Venus in 1966 ( Venera 3), Mars in 1971 ( Mars 3, although a fully successful landing didn't occur until Viking 1 in 1976), the asteroid 433 Eros in 2001 ( NEAR Shoemaker), and Saturn's moon Titan ( Huygens) and the comet Tempel 1 ( Deep Impact) in 2005. The Galileo orbiter also dropped a probe into Jupiter's atmosphere in 1995; since Jupiter has no physical surface, it was destroyed by increasing temperature and pressure as it descended.
To date, only two worlds in the Solar System, the Moon and Mars, have been visited by mobile rovers. The first rover to visit another celestial body was the Soviet Lunokhod 1, which landed on the Moon in 1970. The first to visit another planet was Sojourner, which travelled 500 metres across the surface of Mars in 1997. The only manned rover to visit another world was NASA's Lunar rover, which travelled with Apollos 15, 16 and 17 between 1971 and 1972.
Manned exploration
Manned exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an altitude of over 100 km) and to orbit the Earth was Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut who was launched in Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. The first man to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was Neil Armstrong, who stepped onto the Moon on July 21, 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States' Space Shuttle, which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital space station to host more than one crew was NASA's Skylab, which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station Mir, which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the International Space Station, has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That same year, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a manned mission to Mars
The first probe to land on another Solar System body was the Soviet Luna 2 probe, which impacted the Moon in 1959. Since then, increasingly distant planets have been reached, with probes landing on or impacting the surfaces of Venus in 1966 ( Venera 3), Mars in 1971 ( Mars 3, although a fully successful landing didn't occur until Viking 1 in 1976), the asteroid 433 Eros in 2001 ( NEAR Shoemaker), and Saturn's moon Titan ( Huygens) and the comet Tempel 1 ( Deep Impact) in 2005. The Galileo orbiter also dropped a probe into Jupiter's atmosphere in 1995; since Jupiter has no physical surface, it was destroyed by increasing temperature and pressure as it descended.
To date, only two worlds in the Solar System, the Moon and Mars, have been visited by mobile rovers. The first rover to visit another celestial body was the Soviet Lunokhod 1, which landed on the Moon in 1970. The first to visit another planet was Sojourner, which travelled 500 metres across the surface of Mars in 1997. The only manned rover to visit another world was NASA's Lunar rover, which travelled with Apollos 15, 16 and 17 between 1971 and 1972.
Manned exploration
Manned exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an altitude of over 100 km) and to orbit the Earth was Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut who was launched in Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. The first man to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was Neil Armstrong, who stepped onto the Moon on July 21, 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States' Space Shuttle, which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital space station to host more than one crew was NASA's Skylab, which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station Mir, which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the International Space Station, has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That same year, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a manned mission to Mars
Man ‘s Observations by spacecraft
Since the start of the Space Age, a great deal of exploration has been performed by robotic spacecraft missions that have been organized and executed by various space agencies. All planets in the Solar System have now been visited to varying degrees by spacecraft launched from Earth. Through these unmanned missions, humans have been able to get close-up photographs of all of the planets and, in the case of landers, perform tests of the soils and atmospheres of some. The first manmade object sent into space was the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1, launched in 1957, which successfully orbited the Earth for over a year. The American probe Explorer 6, launched in 1959, was the first satellite to image the Earth from space.
Flybys
The first successful probe to fly by another Solar System body was Luna 1, which sped past the Moon in 1959. Originally meant to impact with the Moon, it instead missed its target and became the first manmade object to orbit the Sun. Mariner 2 was the first probe to fly by another planet, Venus, in 1962. The first successful flyby of Mars was made by Mariner 4 in 1965. Mercury was first encountered by Mariner 10 in 1974. The first probe to explore the outer planets was Pioneer 10, which flew by Jupiter in 1973. Pioneer 11 was the first to visit Saturn, in 1979.
The Voyager probes performed a grand tour of the outer planets following their launch in 1977, with both probes passing Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980 – 1981. Voyager 2 then went on to make close approaches to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The Voyager probes are now far beyond Neptune's orbit, and are on course to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. According to NASA, both Voyager probes have encountered the termination shock at a distance of approximately 93 AU from the Sun.
The first flyby of a comet occurred in 1985, when the International Cometary Explorer (ICE) passed by the comet Giacobini-Zinner, while the first flybys of asteroids were conducted by the Galileo space probe, which imaged both 951 Gaspra (in 1991) and 243 Ida (in 1993) on its way to Jupiter. No Kuiper belt object has yet been visited by a spacecraft. Launched on January 19, 2006, the New Horizons probe is currently en route to becoming the first man-made spacecraft to explore this area. This unmanned mission is scheduled to fly by Pluto in July 2015. Should it prove feasible, the mission will then be extended to observe a number of other Kuiper belt objects.
Flybys
The first successful probe to fly by another Solar System body was Luna 1, which sped past the Moon in 1959. Originally meant to impact with the Moon, it instead missed its target and became the first manmade object to orbit the Sun. Mariner 2 was the first probe to fly by another planet, Venus, in 1962. The first successful flyby of Mars was made by Mariner 4 in 1965. Mercury was first encountered by Mariner 10 in 1974. The first probe to explore the outer planets was Pioneer 10, which flew by Jupiter in 1973. Pioneer 11 was the first to visit Saturn, in 1979.
The Voyager probes performed a grand tour of the outer planets following their launch in 1977, with both probes passing Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980 – 1981. Voyager 2 then went on to make close approaches to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The Voyager probes are now far beyond Neptune's orbit, and are on course to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. According to NASA, both Voyager probes have encountered the termination shock at a distance of approximately 93 AU from the Sun.
The first flyby of a comet occurred in 1985, when the International Cometary Explorer (ICE) passed by the comet Giacobini-Zinner, while the first flybys of asteroids were conducted by the Galileo space probe, which imaged both 951 Gaspra (in 1991) and 243 Ida (in 1993) on its way to Jupiter. No Kuiper belt object has yet been visited by a spacecraft. Launched on January 19, 2006, the New Horizons probe is currently en route to becoming the first man-made spacecraft to explore this area. This unmanned mission is scheduled to fly by Pluto in July 2015. Should it prove feasible, the mission will then be extended to observe a number of other Kuiper belt objects.
Telescopic observations of Man
The first exploration of the Solar System was conducted by telescope, when astronomers first began to map those objects too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Galileo Galilei was the first to discover physical details about the individual bodies of the Solar System. He discovered that the Moon was cratered, that the Sun was marked with sunspots, and that Jupiter had four satellites in orbit around it. Christiaan Huygens followed on from Galileo's discoveries by discovering Saturn's moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn. Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four more moons of Saturn, the Cassini division in Saturn's rings, and the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. Edmond Halley realised in 1705 that repeated sightings of a comet were in fact recording the same object, returning regularly once every 75–76 years. This was the first evidence that anything other than the planets orbited the Sun.
Around this time (1704), the term "Solar System" first appeared in English. In 1781, William Herschel was looking for binary stars in the constellation of Taurus when he observed what he thought was a new comet. In fact, its orbit revealed that it was a new planet, Uranus, the first ever discovered. Giuseppe Piazzi discovered Ceres in 1801, a small world between Mars and Jupiter that initially was considered a new planet. However, subsequent discoveries of thousands of other small worlds in the same region led to their eventual reclassification as asteroids. By 1846, discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus led many to suspect a large planet must be tugging at it from farther out. Urbain Le Verrier's calculations eventually led to the discovery of Neptune. The excess perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit led Le Verrier to postulate the intra-Mercurian planet Vulcan in 1859, but that would turn out to be a red herring.
While it is debatable when the Solar System was truly "discovered," three 19th century observations determined its nature and place in the universe beyond reasonable doubt. First, in 1838, Friedrich Bessel successfully measured a stellar parallax, an apparent shift in the position of a star created by the Earth's motion around the Sun. This was not only the first direct, experimental proof of heliocentrism, but also revealed, for the first time, the vast distance between our Solar System and the stars. Then, in 1859, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, using the newly invented spectroscope, examined the spectral signature of the Sun and discovered that it was composed of the same elements as existed on Earth, establishing for the first time a physical link between the Earth and the heavens. Then, Father Angelo Secchi compared the spectral signature of the Sun with those of other stars, and found them virtually identical. The realisation that the Sun was a star led to the hypothesis that other stars could have systems of their own, though this was not to be proven for nearly 140 years.
Further apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets led Percival Lowell to conclude that yet another planet, " Planet X", must lie beyond Neptune. After his death, his Lowell Observatory conducted a search which ultimately led to Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto in 1930. Pluto was, however, found to be too small to have disrupted the orbits of the outer planets, and its discovery was therefore coincidental. Like Ceres, it was initially considered to be a planet, but after the discovery of many other similarly sized objects in its vicinity it was reclassified in 2006 as a dwarf planet by the IAU. In 1992, the first evidence of a planetary system other than our own was discovered, orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. Three years later, 51 Pegasi b, the first extrasolar planet around a Sunlike star, was discovered. As of 2008, 221 extrasolar systems have been found.
Also in 1992, astronomers David C. Jewitt of the University of Hawaii and Jane Luu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered (15760) 1992 QB1. This object proved to be the first of a new population, which came to be known as the Kuiper belt; an icy analogue to the asteroid belt of which such objects as Pluto and Charon were deemed a part. Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz announced the discovery of Eris in 2005, a scattered disc object larger than Pluto and the largest object discovered in orbit round the Sun since Neptune.
Around this time (1704), the term "Solar System" first appeared in English. In 1781, William Herschel was looking for binary stars in the constellation of Taurus when he observed what he thought was a new comet. In fact, its orbit revealed that it was a new planet, Uranus, the first ever discovered. Giuseppe Piazzi discovered Ceres in 1801, a small world between Mars and Jupiter that initially was considered a new planet. However, subsequent discoveries of thousands of other small worlds in the same region led to their eventual reclassification as asteroids. By 1846, discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus led many to suspect a large planet must be tugging at it from farther out. Urbain Le Verrier's calculations eventually led to the discovery of Neptune. The excess perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit led Le Verrier to postulate the intra-Mercurian planet Vulcan in 1859, but that would turn out to be a red herring.
While it is debatable when the Solar System was truly "discovered," three 19th century observations determined its nature and place in the universe beyond reasonable doubt. First, in 1838, Friedrich Bessel successfully measured a stellar parallax, an apparent shift in the position of a star created by the Earth's motion around the Sun. This was not only the first direct, experimental proof of heliocentrism, but also revealed, for the first time, the vast distance between our Solar System and the stars. Then, in 1859, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, using the newly invented spectroscope, examined the spectral signature of the Sun and discovered that it was composed of the same elements as existed on Earth, establishing for the first time a physical link between the Earth and the heavens. Then, Father Angelo Secchi compared the spectral signature of the Sun with those of other stars, and found them virtually identical. The realisation that the Sun was a star led to the hypothesis that other stars could have systems of their own, though this was not to be proven for nearly 140 years.
Further apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets led Percival Lowell to conclude that yet another planet, " Planet X", must lie beyond Neptune. After his death, his Lowell Observatory conducted a search which ultimately led to Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto in 1930. Pluto was, however, found to be too small to have disrupted the orbits of the outer planets, and its discovery was therefore coincidental. Like Ceres, it was initially considered to be a planet, but after the discovery of many other similarly sized objects in its vicinity it was reclassified in 2006 as a dwarf planet by the IAU. In 1992, the first evidence of a planetary system other than our own was discovered, orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. Three years later, 51 Pegasi b, the first extrasolar planet around a Sunlike star, was discovered. As of 2008, 221 extrasolar systems have been found.
Also in 1992, astronomers David C. Jewitt of the University of Hawaii and Jane Luu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered (15760) 1992 QB1. This object proved to be the first of a new population, which came to be known as the Kuiper belt; an icy analogue to the asteroid belt of which such objects as Pluto and Charon were deemed a part. Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz announced the discovery of Eris in 2005, a scattered disc object larger than Pluto and the largest object discovered in orbit round the Sun since Neptune.
Evolution Of Our Solar system…
Hubble image of protoplanetary disks in the Orion Nebula, a light-years-wide "stellar nursery" likely very similar to the primordial nebula from which our Sun formed.The Solar System is believed to have formed according to the nebular hypothesis, which holds that it emerged from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud 4.6 billion years ago. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of elements only formed in the hearts of very large exploding stars, indicating that the Sun formed within a star cluster, and in range of a number of nearby supernovae explosions. The shock wave from these supernovae may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating regions of overdensity in the surrounding nebula, allowing gravitational forces to overcome internal gas pressures and cause collapse.
The region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula, had a diameter of between 7000 and 20,000 AU and a mass just over that of the Sun (by between 0.1 and 0.001 solar masses). As the nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum made it rotate faster. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. As gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation acted on the contracting nebula, it began to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the centre. Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the collapsing nebula became great enough for the protosun to begin thermonuclear fusion. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved, with the thermal energy countering the force of gravitational contraction. At this point the Sun became a full-fledged main sequence star.
The inner Solar System was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, and so the planetesimals which formed there were relatively small (comprising only 0.6% the mass of the disc) and composed largely of compounds with high melting points, such as silicates and metals. These rocky bodies eventually became the terrestrial planets. Farther out, the gravitational effects of Jupiter made it impossible for the protoplanetary objects present to come together, leaving behind the asteroid belt. Farther out still, beyond the frost line, where more volatile icy compounds could remain solid, Jupiter and Saturn became the gas giants. Uranus and Neptune captured much less material and are known as ice giants because their cores are believed to be made mostly of ices (hydrogen compounds).
Once the young Sun began producing energy, the solar wind (see below) blew the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disk into interstellar space and ended the growth of the planets. T Tauri stars have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Artist's conception of the future evolution of our Sun. Left: main sequence; middle: red giant; right: white dwarf. The Solar System as we know it today will last until the Sun begins its journey off of the main sequence. As the Sun burns through its supply of hydrogen fuel, it gets hotter in order to be able to burn the remaining fuel, and so burns it even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of roughly ten percent every 1.1 billion years.
Around 7.6 billion years from now, the Sun's core will become hot enough to cause hydrogen fusion to occur in its less dense upper layers. This will cause the Sun to expand to roughly up to 260 times its current diameter, and become a red giant. At this point, the sun will have cooled and dulled, because of its vastly increased surface area. Eventually, the Sun's outer layers will fall away, leaving a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, half its original mass but only the size of the Earth.
The region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula, had a diameter of between 7000 and 20,000 AU and a mass just over that of the Sun (by between 0.1 and 0.001 solar masses). As the nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum made it rotate faster. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. As gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation acted on the contracting nebula, it began to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the centre. Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the collapsing nebula became great enough for the protosun to begin thermonuclear fusion. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved, with the thermal energy countering the force of gravitational contraction. At this point the Sun became a full-fledged main sequence star.
The inner Solar System was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, and so the planetesimals which formed there were relatively small (comprising only 0.6% the mass of the disc) and composed largely of compounds with high melting points, such as silicates and metals. These rocky bodies eventually became the terrestrial planets. Farther out, the gravitational effects of Jupiter made it impossible for the protoplanetary objects present to come together, leaving behind the asteroid belt. Farther out still, beyond the frost line, where more volatile icy compounds could remain solid, Jupiter and Saturn became the gas giants. Uranus and Neptune captured much less material and are known as ice giants because their cores are believed to be made mostly of ices (hydrogen compounds).
Once the young Sun began producing energy, the solar wind (see below) blew the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disk into interstellar space and ended the growth of the planets. T Tauri stars have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Artist's conception of the future evolution of our Sun. Left: main sequence; middle: red giant; right: white dwarf. The Solar System as we know it today will last until the Sun begins its journey off of the main sequence. As the Sun burns through its supply of hydrogen fuel, it gets hotter in order to be able to burn the remaining fuel, and so burns it even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of roughly ten percent every 1.1 billion years.
Around 7.6 billion years from now, the Sun's core will become hot enough to cause hydrogen fusion to occur in its less dense upper layers. This will cause the Sun to expand to roughly up to 260 times its current diameter, and become a red giant. At this point, the sun will have cooled and dulled, because of its vastly increased surface area. Eventually, the Sun's outer layers will fall away, leaving a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, half its original mass but only the size of the Earth.
Solar System
The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity. These objects are the eight planets and their 166 known moons, four dwarf planets and billions of small bodies, including asteroids, icy Kuiper belt objects, comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust. These objects are grouped in a number of distinct regions. Moving outwards from the Sun, the major components are four terrestrial inner planets, an asteroid belt, four gas giant outer planets, the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and ultimately the hypothetical Oort cloud. A stream of charged particles from the Sun, called the solar wind, defines the heliosphere which permeates the Solar System out to around the scattered disc.
Mercury
Mercury (0.4 AU) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and its only known geological features besides impact craters are lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.
Venus
Venus (0.7 AU) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.
Earth
Earth (1 AU) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only planet known to have life. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.
Mars
Mars (1.5 AU) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses a tenuous atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide. Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until very recently. Its red colour comes from rust in its iron-rich soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites ( Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.
Jupiter
Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, masses 2.5 times all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has sixty-three known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
Saturn
Saturn (9.5 AU), famous for its extensive ring system, has similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition. Saturn is far less massive, being only 95 Earth masses. Saturn has sixty known satellites (and three unconfirmed); two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.
Uranus
Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has twenty-seven known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda.
Neptune
Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has thirteen known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it.
Mercury
Mercury (0.4 AU) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and its only known geological features besides impact craters are lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.
Venus
Venus (0.7 AU) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.
Earth
Earth (1 AU) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only planet known to have life. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.
Mars
Mars (1.5 AU) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses a tenuous atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide. Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until very recently. Its red colour comes from rust in its iron-rich soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites ( Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.
Jupiter
Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, masses 2.5 times all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has sixty-three known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
Saturn
Saturn (9.5 AU), famous for its extensive ring system, has similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition. Saturn is far less massive, being only 95 Earth masses. Saturn has sixty known satellites (and three unconfirmed); two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.
Uranus
Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has twenty-seven known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda.
Neptune
Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has thirteen known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it.
Moon Facts
The moon, the Earth's only natural satellite, is about 238,900 miles away from Earth. It is the brightest light in the night sky, yet it does not give off its own light, but reflects the sunlight. The moon is about one quarter the size of Earth and it has about one-sixth of the Earth's gravity. It is made up of rock and dust. There is no air or life on the moon that we know of. There is no wind or weather on the moon. The footprints left there by the Apollo astronauts will remain there for many years because of this.It takes about one month for the moon to travel or orbit around the Earth. The moon makes one complete rotation for each trip it takes around the Earth. The same side of the moon faces the Earth the whole time. The Moon is 3475 km in diameter.The surface of the moon has many things on it such as craters, lava plains, mountains, and valleys.
Scientists believe the craters were formed around 3.5 to 4.5 billion years ago by meteors hitting the moon's surface.There are different phases of the moon, but the moon does not really change its shape. The different shapes are from different amounts of light being reflected on the moon. The differences in the light depends on the position of the Earth, moon, and sun.Phases of the moon include a New Moon, which is when the moon looks dark. There is no light reflected so we do no see the moon. Then there is a crescent moon because there is a little bit of light on the moon.Next is the first-quarter moon. It looks like a half-moon then. There are other phases, such as the Full Moon, which happens two weeks into the month.
We can see the whole face of the moon then. There is a Gibbous Moon which happens between the first-quarter and half moon, and also between the full and the last-quarter moon. We always see the same side of the moon. The Moon always keeps the same side pointing towards us so we can never see the 'back' of the Moon from the Earth.As the moon rotates around the earth, it also rotates around its own axis at the same rate. This is why we always see the same side of the moon. The moon causes many of the tides in the Earth's oceans. This is because of the gravity force between the Earth and Moon. At full Moon and new Moon, the Sun, Earth and Moon are lined up, producing the higher than normal tides (called spring tides, for the way they spring up).
When the Moon is at first or last quarter, smaller neap tides form.The new moon rises and sets at approximately the same time as the sun. The first quarter moon rises at mid-morning and sets at midnight. So it's at its height around dusk, not in the middle of the night.The full moon rises at sunset and sets at sunrise. The full moon is the only moon that will be overhead in the middle of the night. The last quarter moon rises at midnight and sets at mid-morning. So unless you're a late-owl, you've probably never even seen this moon.The full moon is a lunar phase occurring when the moon is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun and all three bodies are aligned in a straight line. It appears as an entire circle in the sky.The only month that can occur without a full moon is February.The world's tidal ranges are at their maximum during the full moon when the sun, earth and moon are in line.
Scientists believe the craters were formed around 3.5 to 4.5 billion years ago by meteors hitting the moon's surface.There are different phases of the moon, but the moon does not really change its shape. The different shapes are from different amounts of light being reflected on the moon. The differences in the light depends on the position of the Earth, moon, and sun.Phases of the moon include a New Moon, which is when the moon looks dark. There is no light reflected so we do no see the moon. Then there is a crescent moon because there is a little bit of light on the moon.Next is the first-quarter moon. It looks like a half-moon then. There are other phases, such as the Full Moon, which happens two weeks into the month.
We can see the whole face of the moon then. There is a Gibbous Moon which happens between the first-quarter and half moon, and also between the full and the last-quarter moon. We always see the same side of the moon. The Moon always keeps the same side pointing towards us so we can never see the 'back' of the Moon from the Earth.As the moon rotates around the earth, it also rotates around its own axis at the same rate. This is why we always see the same side of the moon. The moon causes many of the tides in the Earth's oceans. This is because of the gravity force between the Earth and Moon. At full Moon and new Moon, the Sun, Earth and Moon are lined up, producing the higher than normal tides (called spring tides, for the way they spring up).
When the Moon is at first or last quarter, smaller neap tides form.The new moon rises and sets at approximately the same time as the sun. The first quarter moon rises at mid-morning and sets at midnight. So it's at its height around dusk, not in the middle of the night.The full moon rises at sunset and sets at sunrise. The full moon is the only moon that will be overhead in the middle of the night. The last quarter moon rises at midnight and sets at mid-morning. So unless you're a late-owl, you've probably never even seen this moon.The full moon is a lunar phase occurring when the moon is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun and all three bodies are aligned in a straight line. It appears as an entire circle in the sky.The only month that can occur without a full moon is February.The world's tidal ranges are at their maximum during the full moon when the sun, earth and moon are in line.
Earth Facts
The Earth is 4.5 billion years old. Fossil records show that life began on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.The Earth is the third planet from the sun, at a distance of 149.5 million km (92.9 million miles). Our Sun is one of 200 billion stars banded together by gravity in an enormous spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. The Earth is approximately 3/5 of the way out from the galaxy center. Light takes 100,000 years to traverse our galaxy. The nearest star to our sun is Alpha Centauri which is 40 trillion km (25 trillian miles) away. On a scale model of the universe, with the Earth shown as 1.5 cm from the Sun, Alpha Centauri would appear 5.5 km (3.5 miles) away from the sun. The Earth is one of nine planets orbiting the sun. The capital letters stand for the order of the planets, starting closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
The orbits of the planets are nearly circular (eliptical) paths around the Sun. If Pluto's path were the size of a dinner plate, the orbits of the four inner planets would fit inside a pea sitting at the center of the plate. The equatorial diameter of the Earth is 12,756 km (7,926 mi). The Earth is inclined on it's axis at an angle of 23.45 deg. The Earth orbits the Sun at an average speed of 29.79 km/s (18.51 miles/sec, or 67,000 miles/hour). One year on Earth is 365.26 days long. One day on Earth is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds long. No one really know how our planet came into being, but one common theory is that the earth developed form a swirling mass of rock and gas. 100 million years ago, the single landmass (called Pangaea) broke into the continents we know today. The temperatures on Earth range from -88 deg to 58 deg Celsius. (-126 deg to 136 deg F.) The earth's temperature fluctuates. 100 million years ago it was 6 to 12 degrees hotter than it is today. Alligators lived in what is now ice-covered Greenland. Today 71% of the Earth is covered with water, 29% by the continents.
The percentage covered by water will increase as the Earth continues to warm and polar ice caps melt. The Pacific Ocean is one of the largest features on the face of the Earth, with an area of more than 181 million square kilometers (approximately 70 million sq mi.) It contains half of the world's water. It takes light 8 min. 20 sec to travel from the sun to the Earth. (Light travels at a speed of 3X10^5 km/sec.) The velocity required to escape Earth's gravity is 11.2 km/sec. Facts and Info about the Planet Earth. Earth is the planet in the Solar System we all are most familiar with. Although we use the Old English name Earth for our planet it has been called several other names by past civilisations, many of which will be familiar to science fiction fans, they include, Tellus the Roman goddess of the Earth and the symbol of fertility, Gaia the ancient Greek earth goddess and of course Terra from the Latin meaning earth. Our Planet is the third closest to the Sun in our Solar System, the average distance being 150 million Km.
The Planet Earth is not very big, it has a diameter of 12,756 km and a mass of 5.972e24 kg.. The Earth has only one moon and it is of course called "The Moon" or in Latin Luna. The Moon is particularly interesting as its the closest planetary body to us, but also the only extraterrestrial body mankind has set foot on. Man's first encounter with the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna probe in 1959, the most important being when Neil Armstrong and then 'Buzz' Aldrin set foot on the moon from surface from the Eagle Lander on the 20th July 1969, It really was 'One small step for man, One giant leap for mankind'. The Moon Earth's only satellite orbits our planet 384,400 km above our heads it has a diameter of 3476 km and a mass of 7.35e22 kg. The Moon has no atmosphere and it's Gravity is only 38% as strong as Earths.
The orbits of the planets are nearly circular (eliptical) paths around the Sun. If Pluto's path were the size of a dinner plate, the orbits of the four inner planets would fit inside a pea sitting at the center of the plate. The equatorial diameter of the Earth is 12,756 km (7,926 mi). The Earth is inclined on it's axis at an angle of 23.45 deg. The Earth orbits the Sun at an average speed of 29.79 km/s (18.51 miles/sec, or 67,000 miles/hour). One year on Earth is 365.26 days long. One day on Earth is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds long. No one really know how our planet came into being, but one common theory is that the earth developed form a swirling mass of rock and gas. 100 million years ago, the single landmass (called Pangaea) broke into the continents we know today. The temperatures on Earth range from -88 deg to 58 deg Celsius. (-126 deg to 136 deg F.) The earth's temperature fluctuates. 100 million years ago it was 6 to 12 degrees hotter than it is today. Alligators lived in what is now ice-covered Greenland. Today 71% of the Earth is covered with water, 29% by the continents.
The percentage covered by water will increase as the Earth continues to warm and polar ice caps melt. The Pacific Ocean is one of the largest features on the face of the Earth, with an area of more than 181 million square kilometers (approximately 70 million sq mi.) It contains half of the world's water. It takes light 8 min. 20 sec to travel from the sun to the Earth. (Light travels at a speed of 3X10^5 km/sec.) The velocity required to escape Earth's gravity is 11.2 km/sec. Facts and Info about the Planet Earth. Earth is the planet in the Solar System we all are most familiar with. Although we use the Old English name Earth for our planet it has been called several other names by past civilisations, many of which will be familiar to science fiction fans, they include, Tellus the Roman goddess of the Earth and the symbol of fertility, Gaia the ancient Greek earth goddess and of course Terra from the Latin meaning earth. Our Planet is the third closest to the Sun in our Solar System, the average distance being 150 million Km.
The Planet Earth is not very big, it has a diameter of 12,756 km and a mass of 5.972e24 kg.. The Earth has only one moon and it is of course called "The Moon" or in Latin Luna. The Moon is particularly interesting as its the closest planetary body to us, but also the only extraterrestrial body mankind has set foot on. Man's first encounter with the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna probe in 1959, the most important being when Neil Armstrong and then 'Buzz' Aldrin set foot on the moon from surface from the Eagle Lander on the 20th July 1969, It really was 'One small step for man, One giant leap for mankind'. The Moon Earth's only satellite orbits our planet 384,400 km above our heads it has a diameter of 3476 km and a mass of 7.35e22 kg. The Moon has no atmosphere and it's Gravity is only 38% as strong as Earths.
History of the Samurai
By 200 AD, rice cultivation had been known on the islands east of the Asian continent for 500 years. With agriculture had come ownership of land where previously, boundaries between small nomadic hunting groups had been indistinct. People came to live together in communities, sharing in the work of planting and harvesting, and in defense against others who would take their winter stores. With the possession of land had come war.The growth of farming drew people away from hunting and away from hunting skills. Some were naturally better suited to fighting then others and so honed those skills, becoming specialists at fighting. Those who fought became warriors, and by virtue of their strength, became the leaders of their clans. The wars they fought resulted in larger clans overcoming and absorbing smaller ones. Japanese society of the third century was composed of many clans, capable and willing to wage war for advantage. It would not be very long before they became one society.By 200 AD, the Chinese Han court had received envoys from as many as 30 clans from northern Kyushu through their offices on the Korean peninsula. The ancestors of the Japanese had much more reason to look west than to the northern wilderness since the west held much to attract them in both materials and technology.
Korean iron and weapons were particularly desirable. Shortly after the fall of the Han in 220 AD, Kyushu clans, capable and willing to wage war for advantage, attacked.Warriors of this era fought on foot with bows, stabbing swords, and spears. Armor was worn, but most warriors probably had only shields. Steel and bronze had come to the Japanese islands with rice and so they knew of and used these materials. The more advanced technology and the better materials, however, were still from the continent.By 300 AD the religious, political, and military consolidation of independent clans culminated with the Yamato clan becoming dominant. Included in the consolidation were clans on northern Kyushu and southern Honshu. The Yamato were in power because of the support of many clans rather than the surrender of those clans. The Yamato culturally consolidated early Japanese society; administratively, many local clans remained relatively independent. Archeological excavations show that mound tombs constructed in this time were all very similar and yet widely distributed. They demonstrate the cultural unity of the people, the independence of distributed clans, and the measure of their power over the lower classes. Yamato invasions of the Korean peninsula were frequent, leading even to the establishment a land hold.
The tip of the peninsula, called Mimana, long under the influence of the islanders, was established as their own domain and base for raids in the fourth century. From this presence, the flow of culture and technology was assured. War with the continentals was not always a matched fight, however. Shortly after 400 AD, the enemy demonstrated that they had learned to fight from horseback. Up until that time, horses, though available, had not been ridden in war by the Yamato. Shooting an arrow from horseback required two hands. Until the invention of stirrups in China in the first century, falling off one's horse was a much more likely event than successfully launching a home hitting arrow. With stirrups providing two sided support and a saddle to brace one's knees, a warrior could stand, use his feet to guide the horse, shoot arrows, and swing a sword. With the additional speed offered by a mount, foot soldiers could be easily surprised and devastated by many fewer men. The Yamato participated in politics and culture on the Korean peninsula directly. Alliances were made and war waged. Even marriages were arranged between courts.
Korean iron and weapons were particularly desirable. Shortly after the fall of the Han in 220 AD, Kyushu clans, capable and willing to wage war for advantage, attacked.Warriors of this era fought on foot with bows, stabbing swords, and spears. Armor was worn, but most warriors probably had only shields. Steel and bronze had come to the Japanese islands with rice and so they knew of and used these materials. The more advanced technology and the better materials, however, were still from the continent.By 300 AD the religious, political, and military consolidation of independent clans culminated with the Yamato clan becoming dominant. Included in the consolidation were clans on northern Kyushu and southern Honshu. The Yamato were in power because of the support of many clans rather than the surrender of those clans. The Yamato culturally consolidated early Japanese society; administratively, many local clans remained relatively independent. Archeological excavations show that mound tombs constructed in this time were all very similar and yet widely distributed. They demonstrate the cultural unity of the people, the independence of distributed clans, and the measure of their power over the lower classes. Yamato invasions of the Korean peninsula were frequent, leading even to the establishment a land hold.
The tip of the peninsula, called Mimana, long under the influence of the islanders, was established as their own domain and base for raids in the fourth century. From this presence, the flow of culture and technology was assured. War with the continentals was not always a matched fight, however. Shortly after 400 AD, the enemy demonstrated that they had learned to fight from horseback. Up until that time, horses, though available, had not been ridden in war by the Yamato. Shooting an arrow from horseback required two hands. Until the invention of stirrups in China in the first century, falling off one's horse was a much more likely event than successfully launching a home hitting arrow. With stirrups providing two sided support and a saddle to brace one's knees, a warrior could stand, use his feet to guide the horse, shoot arrows, and swing a sword. With the additional speed offered by a mount, foot soldiers could be easily surprised and devastated by many fewer men. The Yamato participated in politics and culture on the Korean peninsula directly. Alliances were made and war waged. Even marriages were arranged between courts.
Malaria
Malaria is a long-lasting disease of the blood. It is transmitted to people by mosquitoes infected with the malaria parasite. The malaria parasite attacks the blood and causes recurring chills, fever, and sometimes jaundice and anemia. Malaria is very common throughout the world. In the United States, the main risk is to persons traveling to tropical and subtropical countries where malaria is a problem. No vaccine against malaria is available. Travelers can protect themselves by using anti-mosquito measures and by taking drugs to prevent malaria. Malaria is a disease of the blood that is transmitted to people by infected mosquitoes. Malaria is very common throughout the world. In the United States, the main risk is to persons traveling to tropical and subtropical countries where malaria is a problem. Malaria is caused by any one of four species of one-celled parasites, called Plasmodium.
The parasite is spread to people by the female Anopheles mosquito, which feeds on human blood. Although four species of malaria parasites can infect humans and cause illness, only malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is potentially life-threatening.Malaria transmission occurs in large areas of Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania. The risk to travelers varies depending on local weather conditions, the number of mosquitoes in the area, and the traveler's itinerary and time and type of travel.A person gets malaria from the bite of an infected female mosquito. The mosquito bite injects young forms of the malaria parasite into the person's blood. The parasites travel through the person's bloodstream to the liver, where they grow to their next stage of development. In 6 to 9 days, the parasites leave the liver and enter the bloodstream again.
They invade the red blood cells, finish growing, and begin to multiply quickly. The parasites attack other red blood cells, and the cycle of infection continues, causing the common signs and symptoms of malaria.When a non-infected mosquito bites an infected person, the mosquito sucks up parasites from the person's blood. The mosquito is then infected with the malaria parasites. The parasites go through several stages of growth in the mosquito. When the mosquito bites someone else, that person will become infected with malaria parasites, and the cycle will begin again.Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by transfusion of blood from an infected person or by the use of needles or syringes contaminated with the blood of an infected person.
People with malaria typically have cycles of chills, fever, and sweating that recur every 1, 2, or 3 days. The attack of the malaria parasites on the person's red blood cells makes the person's temperature rise and the person feel hot. The subsequent bursting of red blood cells makes the person feel cold and have hard, shaking chills. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea often go along with the fever. The destruction of red blood cells can also cause jaundice (yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes) and anemia.The time between a mosquito bite and the start of illness is usually 7 to 21 days, but some types of malaria parasites take much longer to cause symptoms. When infection occurs by blood transfusion, the time to the start of symptoms depends on the number of parasites in the transfusion. Malaria is diagnosed by a blood test to check for parasites.Anyone who lives in or travels to a country where there are malaria-infected people and mosquitoes is at risk.Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum can cause kidney or liver failure, coma, and death.
The parasite is spread to people by the female Anopheles mosquito, which feeds on human blood. Although four species of malaria parasites can infect humans and cause illness, only malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is potentially life-threatening.Malaria transmission occurs in large areas of Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania. The risk to travelers varies depending on local weather conditions, the number of mosquitoes in the area, and the traveler's itinerary and time and type of travel.A person gets malaria from the bite of an infected female mosquito. The mosquito bite injects young forms of the malaria parasite into the person's blood. The parasites travel through the person's bloodstream to the liver, where they grow to their next stage of development. In 6 to 9 days, the parasites leave the liver and enter the bloodstream again.
They invade the red blood cells, finish growing, and begin to multiply quickly. The parasites attack other red blood cells, and the cycle of infection continues, causing the common signs and symptoms of malaria.When a non-infected mosquito bites an infected person, the mosquito sucks up parasites from the person's blood. The mosquito is then infected with the malaria parasites. The parasites go through several stages of growth in the mosquito. When the mosquito bites someone else, that person will become infected with malaria parasites, and the cycle will begin again.Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by transfusion of blood from an infected person or by the use of needles or syringes contaminated with the blood of an infected person.
People with malaria typically have cycles of chills, fever, and sweating that recur every 1, 2, or 3 days. The attack of the malaria parasites on the person's red blood cells makes the person's temperature rise and the person feel hot. The subsequent bursting of red blood cells makes the person feel cold and have hard, shaking chills. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea often go along with the fever. The destruction of red blood cells can also cause jaundice (yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes) and anemia.The time between a mosquito bite and the start of illness is usually 7 to 21 days, but some types of malaria parasites take much longer to cause symptoms. When infection occurs by blood transfusion, the time to the start of symptoms depends on the number of parasites in the transfusion. Malaria is diagnosed by a blood test to check for parasites.Anyone who lives in or travels to a country where there are malaria-infected people and mosquitoes is at risk.Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum can cause kidney or liver failure, coma, and death.
Unani
Unani system of Medicine (Unanipathy) which originated in Greece is based on the principles propounded by Galen, a Greek practitioner. After him, many Arab and Persian scholars enriched the system. Among them Abu Sina, an Arab philosopher and Physicist who wrote 'Kitab-al-shifa' or 'Avicenna' was noteworthy. This system earlier known as 'Galenic', later became Unani (Arabic name for Greek) system of medicine. This system has a long and impressive record in India. It was introduced in India around 10th century A.D with the spread of Islamic civilization. Now Unanipathy has become a part of Indian system of Medicine and India is one of the leading countries so far as its practice is concerned. It is very much similar to our Ayurveda.
Unani Medicine established that disease was a natural process and that symptoms were the reactions of the body to the disease. It believes in the humoral theory which presupposes the presence of 4 humours -Dam (blood), Balgham (phlegm), Safra( Yellow bile) and Sauda (black bile) in the body. Each humour has its own temperament - blood is hot and moist, phlegm cold and moist, yellow bile hot and dry and black bile cold and dry. According to Unani, if the four main humours and the four primary qualities were all in a state of mutual equilibrium, one is considered healthy.The diagnosis of diseases in Unani system of medicine is through examination of pulse, urine and stool.
This system observes the influence of surroundings and ecological conditions such as air, food, drinks, body movement and repose, psychic movement and repose, sleep and wakefulness and excretion and retention on the state of health. This influence causes a dominance of one of the four humours in every human body. Unani believes that it is this dominance which gives a man his individual habit and complexion i.e his temperament. In short, Unanipathy aims at maintaining proper health by conserving symmetry in the different spheres of a man's life. Unani practitioners not only cures bodily diseases but also acts as an ethical instructor.
Treatment
Regimental Therapy - It includes venesection, cupping, diaphoresis, diuresis, turkish bath, massage, cauterisation, purging, emesis, exercise and leeching.Dietotherapy - It deals with certain ailments by administration of specific diets or by regulating the quantity and quality of food. Pharmacotherapy - It deals with the use of naturally occurring drugs mostly herbal drugs of animal and mineral origin. Single drugs or their combination in raw form are preferred over compound formulations.Unanipathy has shown remarkable results in curing diseases like Arthritis, Leucoderma, Jaundice, Bronchial Asthma, Filariasis and several other acute and chronic diseases where other systems do not give the desired level of positive response. The Unani system is a secular system in character and is popular among the masses.
Unani Medicine established that disease was a natural process and that symptoms were the reactions of the body to the disease. It believes in the humoral theory which presupposes the presence of 4 humours -Dam (blood), Balgham (phlegm), Safra( Yellow bile) and Sauda (black bile) in the body. Each humour has its own temperament - blood is hot and moist, phlegm cold and moist, yellow bile hot and dry and black bile cold and dry. According to Unani, if the four main humours and the four primary qualities were all in a state of mutual equilibrium, one is considered healthy.The diagnosis of diseases in Unani system of medicine is through examination of pulse, urine and stool.
This system observes the influence of surroundings and ecological conditions such as air, food, drinks, body movement and repose, psychic movement and repose, sleep and wakefulness and excretion and retention on the state of health. This influence causes a dominance of one of the four humours in every human body. Unani believes that it is this dominance which gives a man his individual habit and complexion i.e his temperament. In short, Unanipathy aims at maintaining proper health by conserving symmetry in the different spheres of a man's life. Unani practitioners not only cures bodily diseases but also acts as an ethical instructor.
Treatment
Regimental Therapy - It includes venesection, cupping, diaphoresis, diuresis, turkish bath, massage, cauterisation, purging, emesis, exercise and leeching.Dietotherapy - It deals with certain ailments by administration of specific diets or by regulating the quantity and quality of food. Pharmacotherapy - It deals with the use of naturally occurring drugs mostly herbal drugs of animal and mineral origin. Single drugs or their combination in raw form are preferred over compound formulations.Unanipathy has shown remarkable results in curing diseases like Arthritis, Leucoderma, Jaundice, Bronchial Asthma, Filariasis and several other acute and chronic diseases where other systems do not give the desired level of positive response. The Unani system is a secular system in character and is popular among the masses.
Siddha
Siddha is one of the oldest system of medicine practiced in India. This system was developed in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. It is supposed to have been conceived by the Siddhas or evolved souls ( numbering 18) who lived in the past. The word 'Siddha' comes from 'Siddhi' which means an object to be attained or perfection of heavenly bliss.
Siddhas or Siddhars were great doctors of medicine, philosophers, men with deep knowledge of anatomy and chemistry and savants noted for their wide travel, simple living and high thinking. The Siddhas have their own manuscripts or basic works, written in secret code. Some of the treasured treatises on medicine are poems in palm leaf manuscripts which are now preserved in the Saraswathi Mahal Library, Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu. They were the pioneers in the use of metals and minerals in the treatment of diseases.
The systems of Siddha and Ayurveda are very much similar. In both systems, the basis of treatment is the three element theory or 'tridosha' (three humours). The three humours are Vatha (air), Pitta (bile) and Kapha (phlegm). It is believed that without these humours an individual cannot exist and imbalance of these may cause diseases. There are number of medicines common to both Siddha and Ayurveda. In both systems medicines are prescribed to set right the imbalance in the three life factors.
In Siddha, diseases are diagnosed mainly with the help of signs and symptoms of diseases. Other factors that help to diagnose diseases are touch, examining the pulse, tongue, colour, speech, eyes, faeces and urine. The main aim of Siddha is to assure a healthy life to man kind.
Siddhas or Siddhars were great doctors of medicine, philosophers, men with deep knowledge of anatomy and chemistry and savants noted for their wide travel, simple living and high thinking. The Siddhas have their own manuscripts or basic works, written in secret code. Some of the treasured treatises on medicine are poems in palm leaf manuscripts which are now preserved in the Saraswathi Mahal Library, Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu. They were the pioneers in the use of metals and minerals in the treatment of diseases.
The systems of Siddha and Ayurveda are very much similar. In both systems, the basis of treatment is the three element theory or 'tridosha' (three humours). The three humours are Vatha (air), Pitta (bile) and Kapha (phlegm). It is believed that without these humours an individual cannot exist and imbalance of these may cause diseases. There are number of medicines common to both Siddha and Ayurveda. In both systems medicines are prescribed to set right the imbalance in the three life factors.
In Siddha, diseases are diagnosed mainly with the help of signs and symptoms of diseases. Other factors that help to diagnose diseases are touch, examining the pulse, tongue, colour, speech, eyes, faeces and urine. The main aim of Siddha is to assure a healthy life to man kind.
Naturopathy
Naturopathy is the system of healing in which diseases are cured by means of all natural and rational remedies such as light, water, air, heat, exercise, diet and other physiological measures. Naturopathy is built upon the dictum of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, who declared "Nature cures; not the physicians". Naturopathy is a combination of different methods of natural healing. It is also a way of life. It is known by different names - Nature Cure, the natural methods, the New science of healing and Healing from within. Fasting to relieve the symptoms of an upset stomach, using water as a healing aid or eating a sensible balanced diet to maintain good health are all examples of Naturopathy.
The origins of the practice can be traced back over two thousand years to the time of Hippocrates. Hippocrates and his colleagues considered disease to be an effect of some imbalance in the elements like air, water and other natural factors such as food.The basis of the modern practice can be traced back to the beginning of the19th century and to people such as Preissnitz a therapist in Germany, who used the beneficial effects of water as a therapy (hydrotherapy). It is an important aspect of Naturopathy. Towards the end of the 19th century in Bavaria, Father Kneipp, a monk, who was obviously a Naturopath treated an American Benedictine by the name of Lust. As a result of his recovery, Lust stayed with Kneipp to study his particular methods of healing and upon returning to the United states he established his own form of natural medicine which he called Naturopathy.
Thus at the beginning of the 19th century, Naturopathy began to be formally recognised. The blend of therapies employed by Lust included nutrition and natural diet, Homeopathy, herbal medicine, Hydrotherapy, Chiropractic and the management of stress. The term 'Naturopathy' was created by Dr.Scheel of New York city.An unhealthy lifestyle can cause many diseases. So it is better to avoid a diet high in fat, salt and refined Carbohydrates, smoking , excess consumption of alcohol and high stress levels. Naturopathy advocates a new life style with corrective habits such as exercise, a good diet and a moderate approach towards all things Naturopathic life style should be viewed as a method of disease prevention.
In Naturopathy, the fundamental healing force is considered to be nature itself, that is the power of the individual to defeat disease. Naturopathy is primarily and fundamentally drugless and blood-less yet in its broader aspects it does admit the use of both natural medicine and surgery when their use is constructive. The techniques employed in nature cure vary with the experience of its practitioner.Naturopathy helps to prevent many common diseases such as headaches, the common cold, hypertension, peptic ulcers and many of the disorders associated with ageing, including diabetes. It aims at educating people about adopting the type of lifestyle which is conducive to good health.
The origins of the practice can be traced back over two thousand years to the time of Hippocrates. Hippocrates and his colleagues considered disease to be an effect of some imbalance in the elements like air, water and other natural factors such as food.The basis of the modern practice can be traced back to the beginning of the19th century and to people such as Preissnitz a therapist in Germany, who used the beneficial effects of water as a therapy (hydrotherapy). It is an important aspect of Naturopathy. Towards the end of the 19th century in Bavaria, Father Kneipp, a monk, who was obviously a Naturopath treated an American Benedictine by the name of Lust. As a result of his recovery, Lust stayed with Kneipp to study his particular methods of healing and upon returning to the United states he established his own form of natural medicine which he called Naturopathy.
Thus at the beginning of the 19th century, Naturopathy began to be formally recognised. The blend of therapies employed by Lust included nutrition and natural diet, Homeopathy, herbal medicine, Hydrotherapy, Chiropractic and the management of stress. The term 'Naturopathy' was created by Dr.Scheel of New York city.An unhealthy lifestyle can cause many diseases. So it is better to avoid a diet high in fat, salt and refined Carbohydrates, smoking , excess consumption of alcohol and high stress levels. Naturopathy advocates a new life style with corrective habits such as exercise, a good diet and a moderate approach towards all things Naturopathic life style should be viewed as a method of disease prevention.
In Naturopathy, the fundamental healing force is considered to be nature itself, that is the power of the individual to defeat disease. Naturopathy is primarily and fundamentally drugless and blood-less yet in its broader aspects it does admit the use of both natural medicine and surgery when their use is constructive. The techniques employed in nature cure vary with the experience of its practitioner.Naturopathy helps to prevent many common diseases such as headaches, the common cold, hypertension, peptic ulcers and many of the disorders associated with ageing, including diabetes. It aims at educating people about adopting the type of lifestyle which is conducive to good health.
Reiki
'Reiki' is a Japanese word meaning life energy. It is a complementary therapy and one of the many facets of alternative medicine available today. It is a method of natural healing. This therapy was discovered by Dr. Mikao Usui, a Japanese theologist. In this therapy, hands are used as the instruments of healing. This therapy is performed by either a Reiki master or a Reiki practitioner. Reiki is centered upon universal life energy. Reiki energy is regarded as life energy at its most effective. It has a divine quality and it gives a feeling of detachment from the world so that problems doesn't effect the user. Those who use Reiki regularly, often find they are more joyful, lively and their own inbuilt energy is enhanced. Body organs such as the skin and protective systems such as the immune system are improved. Deep relaxation is the main factor in Reiki therapy and this is very much dependent upon the divine quality attributed to the energy.
When each Reiki therapy session is complete the whole body may be energized via the root Chakra.
Remove Jewellery - Before Reiki, Jewellery must be removed, so as to enable the free flow of life energy.Wash hands- Washing hands makes the hands pleasant to feel, for the recipient of Reiki.Say a prayer- This is in order to concentrate upon and acknowledge your aims.If there is any physical blemishes such as burns, the hands should be held a few inches above the skin at this area. If the person is suffering from any illness, he should seek advice from a doctor as to whether they can undergo Reiki therapy.The extent of each session of Reiki will vary depending upon circumstances and the individual receiving treatment. In the case of a small child or an elderly person, time limit of the therapy should be limited to 15 to 20 minutes.
Reiki can be done on various parts of the body like head, chest and abdomen, back etc. There are various basic positions or arrangements in which hands are placed in different parts of the body. Reiki on the head is useful in case of cold, sinusitis, eye complaints, allergies, fatigue, headaches, asthma and circulatory problems. In the case of Reiki on the head, the hands are placed on either side of the nose, with the palms covering the eyes, the thumbs rest by the bridge of the nose and finger-tips cover the cheeks and reach the upper lip. In the second arrangement for the head, the hands are placed over the ears, with the fingertips extending down the jaw line to the neck, encompassing the ears of course which includes the semicircular canals, responsible for balance.
Reiki on the back is useful in cases of lung and heart diseases, muscular tension, head aches and related condition. There are a number of arrangements which can be adopted on the back and lower back. In one of this arrangement, the hands are placed across the shoulder blades at mid to upper point, to influence the intestines, lung, heart and various muscles in the neck and shoulder region. If the hands are placed lower down the back, around the midriff (on the lower ribs) this position will accommodate the kidneys and adrenal glands.
In addition to these specific positions, there are many other Reiki positions in different parts of the body to deal with multitude of complaints.Long-term whole body Reiki can be adopted not only to counteract a particular symptom, but also to treat the whole body to achieve relaxation. Relaxation is possible with the removal of block ages in energy flow and dispersal of toxins. Reiki also facilitates faster recovery from illness. This therapy can be used advantageously with other therapies like Gem therapy, Aromatherapy, Homeopathy, Yoga etc.
When each Reiki therapy session is complete the whole body may be energized via the root Chakra.
Remove Jewellery - Before Reiki, Jewellery must be removed, so as to enable the free flow of life energy.Wash hands- Washing hands makes the hands pleasant to feel, for the recipient of Reiki.Say a prayer- This is in order to concentrate upon and acknowledge your aims.If there is any physical blemishes such as burns, the hands should be held a few inches above the skin at this area. If the person is suffering from any illness, he should seek advice from a doctor as to whether they can undergo Reiki therapy.The extent of each session of Reiki will vary depending upon circumstances and the individual receiving treatment. In the case of a small child or an elderly person, time limit of the therapy should be limited to 15 to 20 minutes.
Reiki can be done on various parts of the body like head, chest and abdomen, back etc. There are various basic positions or arrangements in which hands are placed in different parts of the body. Reiki on the head is useful in case of cold, sinusitis, eye complaints, allergies, fatigue, headaches, asthma and circulatory problems. In the case of Reiki on the head, the hands are placed on either side of the nose, with the palms covering the eyes, the thumbs rest by the bridge of the nose and finger-tips cover the cheeks and reach the upper lip. In the second arrangement for the head, the hands are placed over the ears, with the fingertips extending down the jaw line to the neck, encompassing the ears of course which includes the semicircular canals, responsible for balance.
Reiki on the back is useful in cases of lung and heart diseases, muscular tension, head aches and related condition. There are a number of arrangements which can be adopted on the back and lower back. In one of this arrangement, the hands are placed across the shoulder blades at mid to upper point, to influence the intestines, lung, heart and various muscles in the neck and shoulder region. If the hands are placed lower down the back, around the midriff (on the lower ribs) this position will accommodate the kidneys and adrenal glands.
In addition to these specific positions, there are many other Reiki positions in different parts of the body to deal with multitude of complaints.Long-term whole body Reiki can be adopted not only to counteract a particular symptom, but also to treat the whole body to achieve relaxation. Relaxation is possible with the removal of block ages in energy flow and dispersal of toxins. Reiki also facilitates faster recovery from illness. This therapy can be used advantageously with other therapies like Gem therapy, Aromatherapy, Homeopathy, Yoga etc.
Osteopathy
The practice of Osteopathy is a scientific adjustment by mechanical manipulations of the joints, muscles, tissues and viscera to promote the circulation and allow the vital fluids to circulate without interruption. It stipulates that disease is caused by abnormal changes in the tissues of ligaments, muscles and organs as well as in the position and mobility of the bones wherever situated in the body. The practice of Osteopathy is done by a Osteopath and is based upon a thorough knowledge of anatomy, physiology and hygiene. Osteopathy involves the treatment of vertebral column, joint, bone, muscle and tissue in the whole body. Structural derangement or lesion is considered the most important underlying cause of disease. A lesion may be in bony, muscular, ligamentous, facial, or other tissues.
It results in lack of normal movement in surrounding tissues allowing blood and lymph to stagnate, causing acidosis, irritating nerves which pass that way and through them affecting the functions of various organs including blood vessels. The theory evolved was that if there was a displacement of the spine the Osteopathic lesion would prevent the free flow of blood through the body and the specific organs. If the life-force inside people; the blood, was impeded this would cause an alteration of functioning elsewhere which in turn would cause disease or allow the body to become diseased.Osteopathy states that the body is a vital and physical mechanism, subject to derangement, structural alteration and functional changes. Osteopathy includes preventive, palliative and curative measures.
Treatment
Osteopath first observes the patient and studies the nature of the problem. An Osteopath thoroughly examines the patient and observe how he sits, stands or lies down and also the manner in which the body is bent to the side, back or front. The practitioner will also feel the muscles, soft tissues and ligaments to detect if there is any tension present, so that the Osteopath is able to take note of the extent and ability of the joint to function. X-rays are also checked when needed to determine the extent of any problem. After all these examinations, osteopath will take a decision as to whether the patient will benefit from this therapy or not.
This therapy is done by manipulating the joints which will lessen any tenseness present in the muscles and also improve its ability to work correctly to its maximum extent. In addition to manipulation, other methods such as massage can also be used. Muscles can be freed from tension if the tissue is massaged and this will also stimulate the flow of blood. Techniques of learning to relax, how to stand and sit correctly and additional exercises are suggested by the Osteopath.Another form of therapy, which is known as Cranial Osteopathy is used for patients suffering from pain in the face or head. This is effected by the Osteopath using slight pressure on these areas including the upper part of the neck. If there is any tautness or tenseness present, the position is maintained while the problem improves. It is now common practice for doctors to recommend patients to use Osteopathy.
It results in lack of normal movement in surrounding tissues allowing blood and lymph to stagnate, causing acidosis, irritating nerves which pass that way and through them affecting the functions of various organs including blood vessels. The theory evolved was that if there was a displacement of the spine the Osteopathic lesion would prevent the free flow of blood through the body and the specific organs. If the life-force inside people; the blood, was impeded this would cause an alteration of functioning elsewhere which in turn would cause disease or allow the body to become diseased.Osteopathy states that the body is a vital and physical mechanism, subject to derangement, structural alteration and functional changes. Osteopathy includes preventive, palliative and curative measures.
Treatment
Osteopath first observes the patient and studies the nature of the problem. An Osteopath thoroughly examines the patient and observe how he sits, stands or lies down and also the manner in which the body is bent to the side, back or front. The practitioner will also feel the muscles, soft tissues and ligaments to detect if there is any tension present, so that the Osteopath is able to take note of the extent and ability of the joint to function. X-rays are also checked when needed to determine the extent of any problem. After all these examinations, osteopath will take a decision as to whether the patient will benefit from this therapy or not.
This therapy is done by manipulating the joints which will lessen any tenseness present in the muscles and also improve its ability to work correctly to its maximum extent. In addition to manipulation, other methods such as massage can also be used. Muscles can be freed from tension if the tissue is massaged and this will also stimulate the flow of blood. Techniques of learning to relax, how to stand and sit correctly and additional exercises are suggested by the Osteopath.Another form of therapy, which is known as Cranial Osteopathy is used for patients suffering from pain in the face or head. This is effected by the Osteopath using slight pressure on these areas including the upper part of the neck. If there is any tautness or tenseness present, the position is maintained while the problem improves. It is now common practice for doctors to recommend patients to use Osteopathy.
Chiropractic
Chiropractic is used to relieve pain by manipulation to correct any problem that are present in the joints and muscles, especially the spine. The word 'Chiropractic' originated from two Greek words 'Kheir' which means 'hands' and 'praktikos' which means 'practical'. A school of Chiropractic was established in about 1895 by a healer called Daniel Palmer(1845-1913). Some times a slight displacement of the opposing articular surfaces may occur in the vertebrae. It is very probable that it will give rise to disease and illness in any part of the body. The most common external causes of vertebral lesion are occupation, habits, injuries, age and exhaustion.Chiropractic treatment heals the abnormality in the spine. The theory evolved is that what when any part of the spine is dislocated, irrespective of the cause of the dislocation, the nerves leading from the backbone are trapped and prevented from transmitting the appropriate healthy signals from the brain to the organ involved and vice versa. As time passes, the trapped nerve causes an irritation, poisons, begin to accumulate and illness is the result.
Subluxation of the vertebrae - spinal lesion may be discovered by palpation of the spinal column and may be corrected by manipulation.The first principle of Chiropractic is that any interference with the nerve supply which has its source in the spinal cord and brain may effect any part of the body through the moving ramification of the nervous system. The interference comes in the form of lesion in the spine.Chiropractic is used in cases of spinal disorders, head aches, neck problem etc. At birth, if the use of forceps is necessary, it may result in neck injury and it may cause headaches and neck problem as he or she grows to maturity. In the case of children, some slight accident that occurred in their early years may result in back pain in the later years. In all these cases Chiropractic is effective.
Treatment
Chiropractor initially observes the patient and study the nature of the problem. X-rays are frequently used by chiropractors since they can show signs of bone disease, fractures or arthritis as well as the spines condition. After all these examination, Chiropractor will make a decision as to whether the patient will benefit from this therapy of not.In this therapy, Chiropractors use their hands in a skilful way to effect the different manipulative techniques. He also uses applications of ice or heat to relieve the injury.
If it is decided that manipulation is necessary to treat a painful lumbar joint, the patient is made to lie on his or her side on a specially designed couch. The upper and lower spine will then be rotated manually but in opposite ways. This manipulation will have the effect of partially locking the joint that is being treated, and the upper leg is usually flexed to aid the procedure. The vertebra that is immediately below or above the joint will then be felt by the Chiropractor, and the combination of how the patient is lying, coupled with gentle pressure applied by the Chiropractor's hand, will move the joint to its furthest extent of normal movement. Then a very quick push applied on the vertebra, results in its movements being extended further than normal ensuring full use of the joint. The muscles that surrounded the joint being suddenly stretched, has the effect of relaxing the muscles of the spine that work up on the joint. This alternation should cause the joint to be able to be used more naturally and should not be a painful procedure.
Subluxation of the vertebrae - spinal lesion may be discovered by palpation of the spinal column and may be corrected by manipulation.The first principle of Chiropractic is that any interference with the nerve supply which has its source in the spinal cord and brain may effect any part of the body through the moving ramification of the nervous system. The interference comes in the form of lesion in the spine.Chiropractic is used in cases of spinal disorders, head aches, neck problem etc. At birth, if the use of forceps is necessary, it may result in neck injury and it may cause headaches and neck problem as he or she grows to maturity. In the case of children, some slight accident that occurred in their early years may result in back pain in the later years. In all these cases Chiropractic is effective.
Treatment
Chiropractor initially observes the patient and study the nature of the problem. X-rays are frequently used by chiropractors since they can show signs of bone disease, fractures or arthritis as well as the spines condition. After all these examination, Chiropractor will make a decision as to whether the patient will benefit from this therapy of not.In this therapy, Chiropractors use their hands in a skilful way to effect the different manipulative techniques. He also uses applications of ice or heat to relieve the injury.
If it is decided that manipulation is necessary to treat a painful lumbar joint, the patient is made to lie on his or her side on a specially designed couch. The upper and lower spine will then be rotated manually but in opposite ways. This manipulation will have the effect of partially locking the joint that is being treated, and the upper leg is usually flexed to aid the procedure. The vertebra that is immediately below or above the joint will then be felt by the Chiropractor, and the combination of how the patient is lying, coupled with gentle pressure applied by the Chiropractor's hand, will move the joint to its furthest extent of normal movement. Then a very quick push applied on the vertebra, results in its movements being extended further than normal ensuring full use of the joint. The muscles that surrounded the joint being suddenly stretched, has the effect of relaxing the muscles of the spine that work up on the joint. This alternation should cause the joint to be able to be used more naturally and should not be a painful procedure.
Hydrotherapy
Hydrotherapy is the use of water to heal and ease a variety of ailments. Hydrotherapy is the most beneficial system of restoring normal functions in the body. It is employed to help balance metabolism. Scientists have revealed the wonderful palliative and curative virtues of water. No other therapeutic agent possesses so many admirable qualities as does water. Being a universal solvent its use internally in the form of enema or drinking water aids greatly in the elimination of waste products, (auto-intoxication) which readily accumulate in the body under certain conditions causing more or less pronounced injury.Hippocrates the father of medicine had an excellent understanding of the physiological properties of water, both hot and cold which he employed in the treatment of fevers, ulcers, hemorrhage and a variety of maladies both medical and surgical.
Hydrotherapy is perhaps the oldest of all therapeutic methods. Pain and various other symptoms can be mitigated by accurately adopted Hydropathic prescriptions.Hydrotherapy is used as a technique of physiotherapy for people recovering from serious injuries and with problems of muscle wastage. It is also used for people with joint problems and those with severe physical disabilities. There are different ways of treatment in Hydrotherapy. Cold baths, improve blood flow to internal tissues and organs. It help to reduce swelling. This method is not advisable for people with serious conditions or for the elderly or very young.Sitz baths are given as treatment for painful conditions with broken skin, such as piles or anal fissure, and also for ailments affecting the urinary and genital organs.
For this, the person first sits in the warm water, which covers the lower abdomen and hips, with the feet in the cold water compartment. After three minutes, the patient sits in the cold water with the feet in the warm compartment.Steam baths are used to encourage sweating and the opening of skin pores. It has a cleansing and refreshing effect.There are many nerve endings on the skin surface which react to the stimulation given. If water of a different temperature is applied to the skin, it will either conduct heat to it or absorb heat from it. These have an influence on the nervous system and hormonal system. Water that is of the same temperature as the body has a marked relaxing and sedative effect on the nervous system. This is used in states of stress to calm the patient. This is called 'neutral bath'.
For this patient is placed in a tub of water, the temperature of which is maintained between 33.5o C and 35.6o C (92oF to 96oF). Half an hour of immersion in a bath like this will have a sedative, or even soporific, effect.
Hot and Cold Sprays of water may be given for a number of disorders but are not recommended for those with serious illness, elderly people or young children. Flotation involves lying face up in an enclosed, dark tank of warm, heavily salted water. It refreshes and relaxes the patient. A cold pack is really a warm pack-the name comes from the cold nature of the initial application.
A large piece of cotton material, a large piece of flannel or woolen material, a rubber sheet-to protect the bed; a hot water bottle, safety pins are the materials required for a cold pack.First, soak the cotton material in very cold water, wring it out well and place it on the flannel that is spread out on the rubber sheet on the bed. Lay the person who is having the treatment on top of the damp material, fold it round his trunk and cover him up at once with the flannel material. Firmly place it with the help of pins.
Now pull up the top bed covers and provide a hot water bottle. The initial cold application produces a reaction that draws fresh blood to the surface of the body; this warmth, being well insulated, is retained by the damp material. The cold pack turns into a warm pack, which is gradually, over a period of six to eight-hours, bakes itself dry. If a feeling of damp coldness is felt, the wet material may be inadequately wrung out, or the insulation materials too loose.
Hydrotherapy is perhaps the oldest of all therapeutic methods. Pain and various other symptoms can be mitigated by accurately adopted Hydropathic prescriptions.Hydrotherapy is used as a technique of physiotherapy for people recovering from serious injuries and with problems of muscle wastage. It is also used for people with joint problems and those with severe physical disabilities. There are different ways of treatment in Hydrotherapy. Cold baths, improve blood flow to internal tissues and organs. It help to reduce swelling. This method is not advisable for people with serious conditions or for the elderly or very young.Sitz baths are given as treatment for painful conditions with broken skin, such as piles or anal fissure, and also for ailments affecting the urinary and genital organs.
For this, the person first sits in the warm water, which covers the lower abdomen and hips, with the feet in the cold water compartment. After three minutes, the patient sits in the cold water with the feet in the warm compartment.Steam baths are used to encourage sweating and the opening of skin pores. It has a cleansing and refreshing effect.There are many nerve endings on the skin surface which react to the stimulation given. If water of a different temperature is applied to the skin, it will either conduct heat to it or absorb heat from it. These have an influence on the nervous system and hormonal system. Water that is of the same temperature as the body has a marked relaxing and sedative effect on the nervous system. This is used in states of stress to calm the patient. This is called 'neutral bath'.
For this patient is placed in a tub of water, the temperature of which is maintained between 33.5o C and 35.6o C (92oF to 96oF). Half an hour of immersion in a bath like this will have a sedative, or even soporific, effect.
Hot and Cold Sprays of water may be given for a number of disorders but are not recommended for those with serious illness, elderly people or young children. Flotation involves lying face up in an enclosed, dark tank of warm, heavily salted water. It refreshes and relaxes the patient. A cold pack is really a warm pack-the name comes from the cold nature of the initial application.
A large piece of cotton material, a large piece of flannel or woolen material, a rubber sheet-to protect the bed; a hot water bottle, safety pins are the materials required for a cold pack.First, soak the cotton material in very cold water, wring it out well and place it on the flannel that is spread out on the rubber sheet on the bed. Lay the person who is having the treatment on top of the damp material, fold it round his trunk and cover him up at once with the flannel material. Firmly place it with the help of pins.
Now pull up the top bed covers and provide a hot water bottle. The initial cold application produces a reaction that draws fresh blood to the surface of the body; this warmth, being well insulated, is retained by the damp material. The cold pack turns into a warm pack, which is gradually, over a period of six to eight-hours, bakes itself dry. If a feeling of damp coldness is felt, the wet material may be inadequately wrung out, or the insulation materials too loose.
MOTHER TERESA
Mother Teresa the 'angel of mercy' dedicated herself to the service of mankind and served god amongst the poorest of the poor, sick and the dying for more than 50 years of her life. Teresa was born as Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhin on 26th August 1910 in Skopje, now the capital of Macedonia to Albanian parents. She was the youngest of three children. Exposed early to prayer and service, she was deeply religious. At the age of 18, she left home for Dublin, Ireland, to join the Loretto abbey and become a nun of the Roman Catholic church. After her training, she was given the name of Sister Teresa. Sisters of Our Lady of Loreto, were very active in India, doing missionary work. She came to India on January 6, 1929 to become a teacher and was moved at the sight of the crippled and helpless people on the pavements. She taught in St. Mary's convent school in Kolkata for 15 years later on became the headmistress. In 1937, she took her final vows as a nun, in Darjeeling.
In 1947, on a journey to Darjeeling later referred by her as the most important journey of her life she had a vision or call to leave the convent, to live among the poor and to take care of the sick and the dying, the hungry, the homeless, to be God's Love in action to the poorest of the poor, which was the beginning of the Missionaries of Charity. At first she did not get the permission to leave the convent but in 1948 she got the permission specifically from Pope Pius XIII to leave the the Loreto community and work among the city's poor. She left the convent, took basic training in nursing and went to live in the nearby slum. She wore an inexpensive and simple white sari with a blue border, which became the most recognised symbol of the Sisters of Charity.
Following one of her former student, others joined her in her mission. In 1948, she opened the first slum school. As the congregation grew she sought approval from the Pope and shifted to 54A Lower Circular Road, which became the Mother House. The Missionaries of charity was officially established as a religious congregation for the Archdiocese of Calcutta in October 1950. The organisation devoted to the working for the destitute, now have thousands of homes and members all over the country and abroad. Calcutta became the center of her humanitarian activities. Her first home was 'Nirmal Hriday' (pure heart) for the sick and the dying, and then ' Shishu Bhavan' for the disabled, orphaned and mentally retarded children, 'Shanti Nagar', a colony for lepers where they were cared for, they could learn a skill, build their own houses and could work on their own fields, AIDS hospices and so on. The first home outside India was founded in 1965 in Venezuela. Others were later opened in Italy, Tanzania, Australia, US, Communist Cuba, former Soviet Union etc.
Mother Teresa became an Indian citizen in 1962. She has received many national and international awards in recognition of her noble work for humanity. The first award being Padmashri for distinguished service (1962), then the Magsaysay Award the same year, Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971), Good Samaritan Award (1971), John . F. Kennedy International Award (1971), Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International peace (1972), Nobel Peace Prize (1979), Bharat Ratna (1980), Rajiv Gandhi Sadbhavana Award (1993) etc. were some of them.
In 1983, at the age of 72, Mother was diagnosed with a serious heart condition and her health steadily worsened. In 1990, Mother had decided to step down as the head due to her failing health and so called a conclave of sisters to choose a successor. But in a secret ballot, she was re-elected with one dissenting vote, that was her own. In 1991 she underwent heart surgery and in March 1997, Sister Nirmala a former Hindu converted to Roman Catholic was elected to succeed Mother Teresa as leader of Missionaries of Charity. On September 5, 1997 the 87-year old mother died of severe cardiac arrest at the Missionaries of Charity headquarters in Kolkata.
The late mother taught the world the beauty in giving and left behind an enormous organisation with the will to continue her work. Mother was beatified by Pope John Paul II at St. Peters square in Vatican, on October 19th 2003, seven years after her death. Henceforth the mother will be referred to as the The Blessed Teresa of Kolkata.
In 1947, on a journey to Darjeeling later referred by her as the most important journey of her life she had a vision or call to leave the convent, to live among the poor and to take care of the sick and the dying, the hungry, the homeless, to be God's Love in action to the poorest of the poor, which was the beginning of the Missionaries of Charity. At first she did not get the permission to leave the convent but in 1948 she got the permission specifically from Pope Pius XIII to leave the the Loreto community and work among the city's poor. She left the convent, took basic training in nursing and went to live in the nearby slum. She wore an inexpensive and simple white sari with a blue border, which became the most recognised symbol of the Sisters of Charity.
Following one of her former student, others joined her in her mission. In 1948, she opened the first slum school. As the congregation grew she sought approval from the Pope and shifted to 54A Lower Circular Road, which became the Mother House. The Missionaries of charity was officially established as a religious congregation for the Archdiocese of Calcutta in October 1950. The organisation devoted to the working for the destitute, now have thousands of homes and members all over the country and abroad. Calcutta became the center of her humanitarian activities. Her first home was 'Nirmal Hriday' (pure heart) for the sick and the dying, and then ' Shishu Bhavan' for the disabled, orphaned and mentally retarded children, 'Shanti Nagar', a colony for lepers where they were cared for, they could learn a skill, build their own houses and could work on their own fields, AIDS hospices and so on. The first home outside India was founded in 1965 in Venezuela. Others were later opened in Italy, Tanzania, Australia, US, Communist Cuba, former Soviet Union etc.
Mother Teresa became an Indian citizen in 1962. She has received many national and international awards in recognition of her noble work for humanity. The first award being Padmashri for distinguished service (1962), then the Magsaysay Award the same year, Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971), Good Samaritan Award (1971), John . F. Kennedy International Award (1971), Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International peace (1972), Nobel Peace Prize (1979), Bharat Ratna (1980), Rajiv Gandhi Sadbhavana Award (1993) etc. were some of them.
In 1983, at the age of 72, Mother was diagnosed with a serious heart condition and her health steadily worsened. In 1990, Mother had decided to step down as the head due to her failing health and so called a conclave of sisters to choose a successor. But in a secret ballot, she was re-elected with one dissenting vote, that was her own. In 1991 she underwent heart surgery and in March 1997, Sister Nirmala a former Hindu converted to Roman Catholic was elected to succeed Mother Teresa as leader of Missionaries of Charity. On September 5, 1997 the 87-year old mother died of severe cardiac arrest at the Missionaries of Charity headquarters in Kolkata.
The late mother taught the world the beauty in giving and left behind an enormous organisation with the will to continue her work. Mother was beatified by Pope John Paul II at St. Peters square in Vatican, on October 19th 2003, seven years after her death. Henceforth the mother will be referred to as the The Blessed Teresa of Kolkata.
Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal, the breathtakingly elegant monument is one of the most beautiful masterpieces of architecture found in the world. Listed as the seventh wonder of the world and a World heritage Monument by the Unesco, this perfectly symmetrical dream in marble is located in the city of Agra, in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, on the banks of the Yamuna River. Taj Mahal is famous as an enduring monument to love. It was built by the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the final resting place for his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal. History says that Arjuman Banu alias Mumtaz, the daughter of Emperor Jahangir's Prime Minister, supposedly captured the heart of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) the minute he saw her. In 1612, at the age of 21, she married him and became his beloved consort Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz used to accompany Shah Jahan in his military campaigns. She was his comrade, his advisor and she inspired him to acts of charity and benevolence towards the weak and the needy, but even these qualities were diminished by the love that bound her to Shah Jahan.
She bore her husband 14 children. In 1630, in Burhanpur , while accompanying her husband on a military campaign she died giving birth to her fourteenth child, at the age of 39. On her deathbed, it is said that Mumtaz asked the king to build a monument so beautiful to show the world how much they loved each other. When her body was brought to Agra, she was laid to rest in a temporary crypt in a garden along the banks of the Yamuna River. The foundation of her mausoleum was laid in 1631. It is also said that his wife's death left Shah Jahan so heartbroken that he locked himself in his private chambers for a month, and when he finally emerged his hair had turned white. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in the same year and was completed after 22 years in 1653 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees. Twenty thousand workmen and master craftsmen- from Persia, France, Iran, Italy and Turkey worked on the building. Although no one knows who planned the Taj, the name of a Persian architect, Ustad Isa, was involved in the construction of this marble monument.
Materials such as red sandstone, silver and gold, carnelian and jasper, moonstone and jade, lapiz lazuli and coral were brought in from all over India and central Asia. The white Makrana marble from Jodhpur took a fleet of 1000 elephants to transport. Precious stones for the inlay came from Baghdad, Punjab, Egypt, Russia, China, Afghanistan, Ceylon and Persia.The unique Mughal style architecture combines elements and styles of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. The Taj Mahal complex (590x300m) mainly consists of the Darwaza or main gateway, the Bageecha or symmetrically planned garden(300x300m), the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khana or rest house, and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum. The actual Tomb is situated inside the Taj.
The main entrance is from the west, but there are also two other entrances from the east and from the south. The majestic main gateway completed in 1648, is a large three-floored red sandstone structure, 50ft wide and 100ft high with an octagonal central chamber and a vaulted roof, with smaller rooms on each side. The gateway consists of a lofty central arch with doubles storeyed wings on either side. Above the central portal in the north and south side, there is a series of 11 attached chattiris (umbrellas) with marble cupolas, flanked by pinnacles. The walls are inscribed with verses from the Quran in Arabic and is done in black calligraphy. A fine feature of the gateway is that the lettering appears to be the same size from top to bottom. This was done by heightening the letters as the distance from the eye increased. The small domed pavilions on top are Hindu in style and looks regal. The gate was originally lined with silver, now replaced with copper and decorated with 1,000 nails whose heads were contemporary silver coins.
She bore her husband 14 children. In 1630, in Burhanpur , while accompanying her husband on a military campaign she died giving birth to her fourteenth child, at the age of 39. On her deathbed, it is said that Mumtaz asked the king to build a monument so beautiful to show the world how much they loved each other. When her body was brought to Agra, she was laid to rest in a temporary crypt in a garden along the banks of the Yamuna River. The foundation of her mausoleum was laid in 1631. It is also said that his wife's death left Shah Jahan so heartbroken that he locked himself in his private chambers for a month, and when he finally emerged his hair had turned white. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in the same year and was completed after 22 years in 1653 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees. Twenty thousand workmen and master craftsmen- from Persia, France, Iran, Italy and Turkey worked on the building. Although no one knows who planned the Taj, the name of a Persian architect, Ustad Isa, was involved in the construction of this marble monument.
Materials such as red sandstone, silver and gold, carnelian and jasper, moonstone and jade, lapiz lazuli and coral were brought in from all over India and central Asia. The white Makrana marble from Jodhpur took a fleet of 1000 elephants to transport. Precious stones for the inlay came from Baghdad, Punjab, Egypt, Russia, China, Afghanistan, Ceylon and Persia.The unique Mughal style architecture combines elements and styles of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. The Taj Mahal complex (590x300m) mainly consists of the Darwaza or main gateway, the Bageecha or symmetrically planned garden(300x300m), the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khana or rest house, and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum. The actual Tomb is situated inside the Taj.
The main entrance is from the west, but there are also two other entrances from the east and from the south. The majestic main gateway completed in 1648, is a large three-floored red sandstone structure, 50ft wide and 100ft high with an octagonal central chamber and a vaulted roof, with smaller rooms on each side. The gateway consists of a lofty central arch with doubles storeyed wings on either side. Above the central portal in the north and south side, there is a series of 11 attached chattiris (umbrellas) with marble cupolas, flanked by pinnacles. The walls are inscribed with verses from the Quran in Arabic and is done in black calligraphy. A fine feature of the gateway is that the lettering appears to be the same size from top to bottom. This was done by heightening the letters as the distance from the eye increased. The small domed pavilions on top are Hindu in style and looks regal. The gate was originally lined with silver, now replaced with copper and decorated with 1,000 nails whose heads were contemporary silver coins.
India Gate
India Gate, a free standing arch, located at the east end of the Raj Path in New Delhi, is one of the most famous monuments in India and also one of the most visited places in New Delhi. Originally called the All India War Memorial, India Gate is a war memorial in honour of the 90,000 Indian soldiers who died during the World War I and the Afghan Wars (1919).It was designed by the famous British architect, Edward Lutyens and the foundation stone was laid down by the Duke of Connaught in February 10 1921. The monument similar in design to the French war memorial, the Arc-de-Triomphe, was completed in 1931, and the same year the then Viceroy Lord Irwin dedicated the structure to the nation.
The arch is a magnificent 42 mt high structure made of red sandstone standing on a low base. Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's house) is situated at the other end of the Rajpath and one can have good view of it by standing at the base of the arch of the India Gate.On top of the India Gate, the line "To the dead of the Indian armies who fell honoured in France and Flanders Mesopotamia and Persia East Africa Gallipoli and elsewhere in the near and the far-east and in sacred memory also of those whose names are recorded and who fell in India or the north-west frontier and during the Third Afghan War" is inscribed in capital letters.
The names of the demised soldiers who died in these wars are also inscribed all along the walls of the arch. There is a shallow domed bowl at the top of the gate. Soon after the 1971 Indo Pak War, a shrine namely Amar Jawan Jyoti(The flame of the immortal warrior) was erected at the base of the India Gate to honour all the soldiers who laid down their lives for protecting the nation. This four faced black marble memorial consists of a rifle placed on its barrel, with a soldier's helmet on top of the bayonet and the words "Amar Jawan" (Immortal Warrior) inscribed in gold on all its faces. It also has four eternally lighted flames to commemorate their brave deeds at the corners of the square base on which cenotaph is placed.
India Gate stands amidst beautiful surroundings of lush green lawns with a famous boat club and a children's park nearby. The
2 1/2km long Rajpath (King's path), a tree-lined avenue flanked by lawns with orderly flowerbeds and clipped hedges, between the India Gate and the Rashtrapathi Bhavan offers an impressive view. India gate is also the centre point of many important roads, which are now closed to public due to terrorist threats. The beautiful surroundings attract a lot of people especially during the evenings when the gate is lit up.
The arch is a magnificent 42 mt high structure made of red sandstone standing on a low base. Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's house) is situated at the other end of the Rajpath and one can have good view of it by standing at the base of the arch of the India Gate.On top of the India Gate, the line "To the dead of the Indian armies who fell honoured in France and Flanders Mesopotamia and Persia East Africa Gallipoli and elsewhere in the near and the far-east and in sacred memory also of those whose names are recorded and who fell in India or the north-west frontier and during the Third Afghan War" is inscribed in capital letters.
The names of the demised soldiers who died in these wars are also inscribed all along the walls of the arch. There is a shallow domed bowl at the top of the gate. Soon after the 1971 Indo Pak War, a shrine namely Amar Jawan Jyoti(The flame of the immortal warrior) was erected at the base of the India Gate to honour all the soldiers who laid down their lives for protecting the nation. This four faced black marble memorial consists of a rifle placed on its barrel, with a soldier's helmet on top of the bayonet and the words "Amar Jawan" (Immortal Warrior) inscribed in gold on all its faces. It also has four eternally lighted flames to commemorate their brave deeds at the corners of the square base on which cenotaph is placed.
India Gate stands amidst beautiful surroundings of lush green lawns with a famous boat club and a children's park nearby. The
2 1/2km long Rajpath (King's path), a tree-lined avenue flanked by lawns with orderly flowerbeds and clipped hedges, between the India Gate and the Rashtrapathi Bhavan offers an impressive view. India gate is also the centre point of many important roads, which are now closed to public due to terrorist threats. The beautiful surroundings attract a lot of people especially during the evenings when the gate is lit up.
Ajanta caves
Ajanta caves, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, holds masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, considered the finest examples of architecture. These historical manmade caves containing paintings on the walls and ceilings primarily depict the life of the Buddha before his enlightenment. The caves are located 100km northeast of Aurangabad, the nearest railhead being 55 km north at Jalgaon city of Maharashtra, India.
The golden age of Buddhism began with the conversion of Emperor Ashoka into the religion in the 3rd century BC. Around 2nd century AD Buddhism split into two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana. The caves at Ajanta which cover both the systems, belong to two distinct phases of Buddhist rock-cut architecture, separated from each other by an interval of about four centuries. They were created out of hard rock with the barest of implements and served as monastic retreats for Buddhist monks, scholars, pupils and artists. The caves which were found to be continuously used or lived in from 200 BC to about AD650 were rediscovered in 1819, by a group of British soldiers who stumbled upon these cultural treasures overrun by foliage, many of them clogged with debris.
The 30 rock-cut caves with incomparable beauty, are cut into the steep face of a horseshoe-shaped hillside, silent but for the birdsong from the nearby Waghore River. The caves, some of them unfinished, are of two basic designs called 'Chaitya grihas' and 'Viharas'. Five of the caves (9,10, 26,29) are Chaityas (Buddhist cathedrals) while the other 25 are Viharas (monasteries). Chaitya grihas were halls of worship - large, rectangular chambers separated by rows of pillars into a central nave, surrounded by aisles on three sides, for circumambulation during prayer, with a sanctuary opposite the entrance. The Chaityas are decorated with sculptures and murals depicting the many incarnations of Buddha. Viharas or monasteries are rectangular shaped halls with series of small cells attached on two sides for the dwelling of monks. Among them, the earlier group belong to the Hinayana sect (2nd century B.C) and the latter group, to the Mahayana sect (A.D. 450 to 650).
Many of the caves are dark inside and without a light paintings are hard to see. A lighting ticket has to be purchased on production of which the cave guards turn on the lights for you to see the paintings. Many of the paintings still glow in their original colours. The outer walls are covered with sculptures. The art depicts the elegant timber-built interiors of spacious palaces, halls, peopled by be- jewelled princess and princesses, retinues of attendants, mendicants and market places, celestial musicians and fur capped foreign emissaries on unknown missions. War-horses in colourful trappings, monkeys, peacocks and elephants and host of other images dominate the world of these unknown artists.
Ajanta paintings are more correctly tempera, since they are painted on a dry surface. The paintings were executed after the rock walls were coated with a 1cm thick layer of clay and cow dung mixed with rice husks. A final coat of lime was applied to produce the finished surface on which the artist painted. These beautiful paintings have survived time and still make the atmosphere very vibrant and alive. The contours of the figures leave the visitor spell bound
The golden age of Buddhism began with the conversion of Emperor Ashoka into the religion in the 3rd century BC. Around 2nd century AD Buddhism split into two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana. The caves at Ajanta which cover both the systems, belong to two distinct phases of Buddhist rock-cut architecture, separated from each other by an interval of about four centuries. They were created out of hard rock with the barest of implements and served as monastic retreats for Buddhist monks, scholars, pupils and artists. The caves which were found to be continuously used or lived in from 200 BC to about AD650 were rediscovered in 1819, by a group of British soldiers who stumbled upon these cultural treasures overrun by foliage, many of them clogged with debris.
The 30 rock-cut caves with incomparable beauty, are cut into the steep face of a horseshoe-shaped hillside, silent but for the birdsong from the nearby Waghore River. The caves, some of them unfinished, are of two basic designs called 'Chaitya grihas' and 'Viharas'. Five of the caves (9,10, 26,29) are Chaityas (Buddhist cathedrals) while the other 25 are Viharas (monasteries). Chaitya grihas were halls of worship - large, rectangular chambers separated by rows of pillars into a central nave, surrounded by aisles on three sides, for circumambulation during prayer, with a sanctuary opposite the entrance. The Chaityas are decorated with sculptures and murals depicting the many incarnations of Buddha. Viharas or monasteries are rectangular shaped halls with series of small cells attached on two sides for the dwelling of monks. Among them, the earlier group belong to the Hinayana sect (2nd century B.C) and the latter group, to the Mahayana sect (A.D. 450 to 650).
Many of the caves are dark inside and without a light paintings are hard to see. A lighting ticket has to be purchased on production of which the cave guards turn on the lights for you to see the paintings. Many of the paintings still glow in their original colours. The outer walls are covered with sculptures. The art depicts the elegant timber-built interiors of spacious palaces, halls, peopled by be- jewelled princess and princesses, retinues of attendants, mendicants and market places, celestial musicians and fur capped foreign emissaries on unknown missions. War-horses in colourful trappings, monkeys, peacocks and elephants and host of other images dominate the world of these unknown artists.
Ajanta paintings are more correctly tempera, since they are painted on a dry surface. The paintings were executed after the rock walls were coated with a 1cm thick layer of clay and cow dung mixed with rice husks. A final coat of lime was applied to produce the finished surface on which the artist painted. These beautiful paintings have survived time and still make the atmosphere very vibrant and alive. The contours of the figures leave the visitor spell bound
Problems of the eyes and how to deal with it
Dark circles, Puffy eyes and Crow's-feet are the three main eye problems that can cloud an otherwise beautiful face.If your eyes are puffy with dark shadows, it shows you are not getting enough sleep. One can get dark circles and puffy eyes if you had a late night out or didn't have a night's sleep or cried your heart out. But, you can make them fade fast.
Preventive methods
For dark circles :
Gently wash the face, then apply a skin tightening moisturizer around the eyes. Grind a raw potato and add almond paste to it. Use the mixture regularly under the eyes to get rid of dark circles and puffiness. Increase your daily intake of water to minimum 8 to10 glasses. Apply fresh fig on the eyes. Place two cucumber slices over the eyes and rest for 15 minutes or apply cucumber juice under the eyes. Getting enough sleep at least 8-10 hours a day, can fade out dark circles
For puffy eyes :
The puffiness of the eyes can be reduced with a glass of ice water and four stainless steel spoons. Chill the spoons in the water and then place one over each eye. When the spoons become warm, switch them with the others chilling in the glass of water. Keep switching until you see improvement.Settle down for two to five minutes with a chilled, steeped chamomile or green tea bag over each eye. The natural properties of these herbal teas helps to bring puffy eyes back down to size. Cucumber contains anti-inflammatory properties to reduce redness and puffiness of eyes. Slice a large cucumber, reserve two slices to place over eyes. Peel and puree the remaining cucumber. This can be applied as a pack onto your face. Remove after fifteen minutes. Apply moisturiser thickly to seal in water.
Crow's-feet:
Crow's-feet are those wrinkles or tiny lines at the corner of the eyes. Once it appears, it is difficult to make it fade. It can only be faded with the aid of injections or cosmetic surgery. It is better to prevent them from occurring in the first place.Wear a sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 15 or more to avoid the ultra violet rays of the sun which cause wrinkles on the skin. Always wear sunglasses when you go out in the sun. Sleeping on your back helps smooth out the wrinkles because gravity works to pull the skin backward. If you cannot sleep on your back, at least try to switch sides frequently. The skin below your eyes is thin and has few oil producing glands. So don't pull, tag or drag it as you apply and remove make up. Any time you apply cream or lotion, dab, don't rub. Regular use of Retin-A cream, an acne product that exfoliates the skin, also improves the appearance of fine crow's-feet.
Preventive methods
For dark circles :
Gently wash the face, then apply a skin tightening moisturizer around the eyes. Grind a raw potato and add almond paste to it. Use the mixture regularly under the eyes to get rid of dark circles and puffiness. Increase your daily intake of water to minimum 8 to10 glasses. Apply fresh fig on the eyes. Place two cucumber slices over the eyes and rest for 15 minutes or apply cucumber juice under the eyes. Getting enough sleep at least 8-10 hours a day, can fade out dark circles
For puffy eyes :
The puffiness of the eyes can be reduced with a glass of ice water and four stainless steel spoons. Chill the spoons in the water and then place one over each eye. When the spoons become warm, switch them with the others chilling in the glass of water. Keep switching until you see improvement.Settle down for two to five minutes with a chilled, steeped chamomile or green tea bag over each eye. The natural properties of these herbal teas helps to bring puffy eyes back down to size. Cucumber contains anti-inflammatory properties to reduce redness and puffiness of eyes. Slice a large cucumber, reserve two slices to place over eyes. Peel and puree the remaining cucumber. This can be applied as a pack onto your face. Remove after fifteen minutes. Apply moisturiser thickly to seal in water.
Crow's-feet:
Crow's-feet are those wrinkles or tiny lines at the corner of the eyes. Once it appears, it is difficult to make it fade. It can only be faded with the aid of injections or cosmetic surgery. It is better to prevent them from occurring in the first place.Wear a sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 15 or more to avoid the ultra violet rays of the sun which cause wrinkles on the skin. Always wear sunglasses when you go out in the sun. Sleeping on your back helps smooth out the wrinkles because gravity works to pull the skin backward. If you cannot sleep on your back, at least try to switch sides frequently. The skin below your eyes is thin and has few oil producing glands. So don't pull, tag or drag it as you apply and remove make up. Any time you apply cream or lotion, dab, don't rub. Regular use of Retin-A cream, an acne product that exfoliates the skin, also improves the appearance of fine crow's-feet.
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